WISELI BIBLIOGRAPHY
Organized by Initiative
Updated November 15, 2005

Initiative I: Resources

American Association of University Women Educational Foundation. Tenure Denied: Cases of Sex Discrimination in AcademiaEd., Susan K. Dyer. American Association of University Women Educational Foundation and American Association of University Women Legal Advocacy Fund, 2004.
Available online
Notes: Reports on 19 cases of tenure denial and the role of sex discrimination
Abstract: This report draws on 19 sex-discrimination cases of tenure denial supported by the AAUW's Legal Advocacy Fund to illustrate both the overt and subtle forms of sex discrimination that continue to operate in academia. The report outlines the process of making an allegation of sex discrimination, the strategies, arguments, and tactics universities commonly employ to counter such allegations, the types of evidence typically needed for a plaintiff to prevail, the costs and rewards of pursuing sex discrimination lawsuits. It also offers recommendations for universities and faculties to prevent sex discrimination and sex discrimination suits.

Ash, Arlene S. and et al. "Compensation and Advancement of Women in Academic Medicine: Is There Equity?" Annals of Internal Medicine 141, no. 3 (Aug. 2004): 205-12.
Available online
Notes: Examines gender inequities in promotion and compensation in academic medicine
Abstract: "Women have been entering academic medicine in numbers at least equal to their male colleagues for several decades. Most studies have found that women do not advance in academic rank as fast as men and that their salaries are not as great. These studies, however, have typically not had the data to examine equity, that is, do women receive similar rewards for similar achievement?" Using data from questionnaires mailed to 24 randomly selected U.S. medical schools this study finds that among the 1814 faculty respondents, "female medical school faculty neither advance as rapidly nor are compensated as well as professionally similar male colleagues [and that] women's deficits are greater for faculty with more seniority."

Babcock, Linda and Sara Laschever. "Introduction: Women Don't Ask." In Women Don't Ask: Negotiation and the Gender DividePrinceton University Press, 2003.
Notes: Introductory Chapter. Book seeks to understand how our culture discourages women from asking/negotiating for what they want and how to foster social change in this regard.
Abstract: Introductory Chapter. The authors discuss their research finding that women are reluctant to ask or negotiate for what they want or need and that this can have dramatic effects on their careers. The author's found, for example, that women were less likely than men to negotiate their starting salaries and that this substantially influenced their earnings over the course of their careers. The authors explore the causes of this difference between men and women. Though the authors hope that their book will help individual women improve their circumstances by increasing their willingness to negotiate effectively, the authors stress that the book is "not about ways in which women need to 'fix' themselves." It is about learning how our culture discourages women from asking for what they want and it aims to provoke social and institutional change. It includes examples of how institutions/organizations have changed their cultures to be more hospitable to women and to foster the advancement of women.

________. Women Don't Ask: Negotiation and the Gender Divide. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2003.
Abstract: (From dust jacket:) When Linda Babcock asked why so many male graduate students were teaching their own courses and most female students were assigned as assistants, her dean said: "More men ask. The women just don't ask." It turns out that whether they want higher salaries or more help at home, women often find it hard to ask. Sometimes they don't know that change is possible--they don't know that they can ask. Sometimes they fear that asking may damage a relationship. And sometimes they don't ask because they've learned that society can react badly to women asserting their own needs and desires. By looking at the barriers holding women back and the social forces constraining them, Women Don't Ask shows women how to reframe their interactions and more accurately evaluate their opportunities. It teaches them how to ask for what they want in ways that feel comfortable and possible, taking into account the impact of asking on their relationships. And it teaches all of us how to recognize the ways in which our institutions, child-rearing practices, and unspoken assumptions perpetuate inequalities--inequalities that are not only fundamentally unfair but also inefficient and economically unsound. With women's progress toward full economic and social equality stalled, women's lives becoming increasingly complex, and the structures of businesses changing, the ability to negotiate is no longer a luxury but a necessity. Drawing on research in psychology, sociology, economics, and organizational behavior as well as dozens of interviews with men and women from all walks of life, Women Don't Ask is the first book to identify the dramatic difference between men and women in their propensity to negotiate for what they want. It tells women how to ask, and why they should.

Barbezat, Debra A. "History of Pay Equity Studies." New Directions for Institutuional Research, no. 115 (Fall 2002): 9-39.
Available online
Notes: Review article from the special issue of New Directions for Institutional Research on the gender pay gap.
Abstract: Provides an overview of the history of salary differentials by race and sex for academic employees. Faculty salary differentials by sex; Decompositions of men-women salary differentials from selected studies from 1969 to 1993; Representation of women and minorities among professional and non-professional staff in fall 1997. [from Academic Search Elite]

Bayer, Alan E. and Helen E. Astin. "Sex Differences in Academic Rank and Salary Among Science Doctorates in Teaching." The Journal of Human Resources 3, no. 2 (Spring 1968): 191-200.
Available online
Notes: Women academics in the natural and social sciences are promoted about as quickly as men but their salaries are persistently lower.
Abstract: "Employment information, reported by approximately 2,700 recent science doctorates to the 1964 National Register of Scientific and Technical Personnel, indicates that the beginning academic rank of new scientists in college and university teaching positions is unrelated to sex. Over time, women in the natural sciences continue to receive promotions comparable to those of their male cohorts. However, women in the social sciences tend to be promoted less rapidly than men. Salary differentials, on the other hand, exist in both beginning and later academic positions, regardless of major field specialty, work setting, or academic rank. These data support the contentions of women doctorates that salary discrimination is practiced more severely than is discrimination regarding tenure or promotions."

Bellas, Marcia L. "Comparable Worth in Academia: The Effects on Faculty Salaries of the Sex Composition and Labor-Market Conditions of Academic Disciplines." American Sociological Review 59, no. 6 (Dec. 1994): 807-21.
Available online
Notes: Faculty salaries are lower in disciplines with a higher proportion of women.
Abstract: "Scholars of comparable worth have identified a negative bias against work typically performed by women, suggesting that the cultural devaluation of women leads to the devaluation of the work women do. Previous studies have demonstrated that both male and female incumbents of jobs employing high proportions of female workers suffer a wage penalty, earning less than those in comparable jobs with high proportions of male workers. I examine whether similar mechanisms operate in academia, asking whether higher proportions of women in academic disciplines depress faculty salaries in those disciplines, independent of the effects of labor-market conditions and conventional salary predictors. Findings from a contextual model show that faculty in disciplines employing high proportions of women suffer a wage penalty unexplained by differences in a number of disciplinary labor-market conditions or by variations in individual qualifications or job characteristics."

________. "Disciplinary Differences in Faculty Salaries: Does Gender Bias Play a Role?" Journal of Higher Education 68, no. 3 (May 1997-June 1997): 299-321.
Available online
Notes: Study examaines whether and how distribution of genders across disciplines impacts academic salaries.
Abstract: This study examines the effects of the labor-market conditions and sex composition of sixteen academic disciplines on the average 1988-89 entry-level salaries of faculty. Findings from both cross-sectional and dynamic models show that, after controlling for the effects of human capital and productivity measures, labor-market conditions influence average salaries, but so too does the sex composition of academic disciplines. [from JSTOR]

Bellas, Marcia L. Toutkoushian Robert K. "Faculty Time Allocations and Research Productivity: Gender, Race, and Family Effects ." Review of Higher Education 22, no. 4 (Summer 1999): 367-90.
Available online
Abstract: A study using data from 14,614 full-time faculty members examined total work hours, research productivity, and allocation of work time among teaching, research, and service. The study found that variations in time expenditures and research output were influenced by gender, race/ethnicity, and marital/parental status, but that these variations were also sensitive to definitions of research output. Administrative implications of these findings are discussed.

Bornmann, Lutz and Hans-Dieter Daniel. "Reliability, Fairness and Predictive Validity of Committee Peer Review." B.I.F. Futura 13, no. 1 (2004): 7-19.
Available online
Notes: Article investigates fairness and validity of a foundation's funding application review process; finds some evidence of gender bias.
Abstract: "In science, peer review is the oldest and best established method of assessing manuscripts, applications for research fellowships and research grants. However, the fairness of peer review, its reliability and whether it achieves its aim to select the best science and scientists has often been questioned. Here we present the first comprehensive study on committee peer review for the selection of doctoral (Ph.D.) and post-doctoral research fellowships. We analysed the selection process of the Boehringer Ingelheim Funds, a foundation for the promotion of basic research in biomedicine, with regard to its reliability, fairness and predictive validity -- the three quality criteria for professional evaluations. We analysed a total of 2,697 applications, 1,954 for doctoral and 743 for post-doctoral fellowships. In 76% of the cases, the decision whether to award a scholarship or not was characterized by agreement between reviewers. Similar figures for reliability were reported for the grant selection processes of other major funding agencies. With regard to fairness, we analysed whether potential sources of bias, i.e. gender, nationality, discipline and institutional affiliation could have influenced the decisions. For post-doctoral fellowships, no statistically significant influence of any of these variables could be observed. In applications for a doctoral fellowship, evidence of a gender, discipline and institutional bias, but not of a nationality bias, was found. We therefore present some proposals for optimizing committee peer review."

Bryson, Colin. "The Consequences for Women in the Academic Profession of the Widespread Use of Fixed Term Contracts." Gender, Work and Organization 11, no. 2 (Mar. 2004): 187-206.
Notes: Status of Women Scientists in Britain, academic staff, fixed term contracts
Abstract: Women have been disadvantaged within the academic profession due to its gendered nature. Some commentators have alleged that temporary contracts may create opportunities for women and that women exhibit a stronger preference for such contracts than men. Over recent years, there has been a sharp rise in the proportion of academic staff employed on fixed term contracts in UK universities. This article examines whether the consequence of this has been to create a bridge for women, leading into and upwards within the profession, or a trap. Drawing on new empirical evidence gathered from academic staff, the conclusions are that segregation is decreasing slowly, but not because of fixed term contracts, and that fixed term contracts create traps and profound disadvantages for both sexes. Women are slightly disadvantaged by forms of patronage that operate to permit some fixed term staff to gain more secure posts. Moreover, relative to men, these professional women neither gain nor perceive any comparative benefits from fixed term contracts as opposed to open-ended contracts.

Carnes, Molly and JudyAnn Bigby, Jennifer Fever in Academic Medicine, (unpublished).
Abstract: Examines the practice of ignoring, discounting or undervaluing the experience, expertise, and contributions of senior women in academic medicine while at the same time believe that problems confronting women in academic medicine will be solved by a new cohort of bright and competent women in medicine. Argues that when the new cohort become senior women themselves, the practice repeats itself.

Crosby, Faye J., Joan C. Williams, and Monica. Biernat. "The Maternal Wall." The Journal of Social Issues 60, no. 4 (2004): 675-82.
Available online
Abstract: Although the economic and social position of women has improved considerably in the last decades, some gendered expectations and roles have proved remarkably resilient. Increasingly, the gender gap in compensation has become an issue of "mother" versus "other," as, for example, working mothers earn 60% of what working fathers earn. Conservatives tend to frame the gender imbalance in terms of women's choices; but feminists, including those in this issue, debunk explanations that blame women for gender differences in earnings. Contributors to this issue, whose work we introduce here, chronicle and analyze the power of stereotypic thinking and behavior, and also discuss how to change both stereotypes and realities. [PUBLICATION ABSTRACT]

Eisenhart, Margaret A and Elizabeth Finkel. Women's Science Learning and Succeeding From the Margins. Chicago, Ill: University of Chicago Press, 1998.

Ferber, Marianne A. and Carole A. Green. "Traditional or Reverse Sex Discrimination? A Case Study of a Large Public University." Industrial and Labor Relations Review 35, no. 4 (July 1982): 550-564.
Available online
Notes: Article finds evidence that there is no effective affirmative action in female faculty employment.
Abstract: "This study assesses the extent and causes of recent sex discrimination in academic positions at a large public university. Performing multiple regression analysis on data for all individuals hired for full-time faculty positions during the academic years 1975-76 through 1978-79 at the University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, the authors find that women are paid less ($2,200 less, on average) than men when such usual criteria as highest degree, experience, number of publications, honors, and field are held constant. They find no evidence that this gap closes over time. Using multiple probit analysis, the authors find, in addition, that women are less likely to be hired in tenure-track positions. Then, using discriminant analysis as an alternate method, they find that articles published is the largest contributing factor to high academic rank, but that sex is also a significant factor. The authors conclude that, despite suspicions to the contrary, their evidence shows no effective affirmative action in faculty employment."

Ferber, Marianne A. and Jane W. Loeb. "Issues in Conducting an Institutional Salary-Equity Study." New Directions for Insititutional Research, no. 115 (Fall 2002): 41-69.
Available online
Notes: Article from a special journal issue on the gender pay gap, reviews methodological issues relating to conducting a pay equity study.
Abstract: Investigates the effects of several different specifications of a salary model on findings of gender differences in salary and on their correction. Objectives of institutional salary studies; Features of the usual salary study; Factors to consider in conducting a single-institution salary-equity study; Effects of different salary models on results of equity study. [from Academic Search Elite]

Fink, Ira. "Research Space: Who Needs It, Who Gets It, Who Pays for It?" Planning for Higher Education 33, no. 1 (Sept. 2004-Nov. 2004): 5-17.
Available online
Notes: Discusses institutional planning issues as they relate to the allocation of research space; does not address gender.
Abstract: "The writer provides an overview of research space management across the U.S. on general campuses and in health science centers. The overview indicates that the many people and groups involved in the research space allocation and management process are faced with important campus issues related to documenting how research space is used, projecting what needs exist, acquiring the space, managing it, and maintaining a research space equilibrium by keeping demand and supply in balance."

Fox, Mary Frank. "Sex, Salary, and Achievement: Reward-Dualism in Academia." Sociology of Education 54, no. 2 (Apr. 1981): 71-84.
Available online
Notes: Structural factors and scientific norms contribute to and reinforce a dual reward structure for men and women academics.
Abstract: "This article reports an analysis of salary in academia as it is determined by achieved, ascribed, and university location characteristics--for men compared to women. Regarding achievements as "legitimate" determinants of salary, the study analyzes the extent, form, and locus of sex variation in wages within academia. Hence, the study provides an analysis of the internal complexity of sex variation in salary as it is institutionally determined. We find that: 1) Among our variables, achievements are the dominant determinants of salary for both men and women. But, compared to men, women's salary returns to achievements are lower; they are less subject to the variations of race, citizenship, and intra-university location; and they are more responsive to the effect of higher level credentials. 2) Although less important as salary determinants, the ascribed and location characteristics also have different effects for the sexes with respect to the rate and structure of salary returns. We conclude that: 1) Achievement values govern reward, but a universalistic standard with respect to sex does not. The achievement ideology operates, but it is practiced under standards that are different for each sex; and hence, academic salary forms a dual reward structure. 2) Sex segregation and the norm of scientific "disinterestedness" are among the mechanisms which may be permitting and promoting this dual salary structure."

Gannon, Frank, Sara Quirk, and Sebastian Guest. "Searching for Discrimination." EMBO Reports 2, no. 8 (2001): 655-57.
Available online
Notes: Investigates whether women are treated fairly for the EMBO postdoctoral fellowship
Abstract: Stimulated by the Wenneras and Wold study of the Swedish Medical Research Council, this report investigates potential gender bias in the applicant review process of the European Molecular Biology Organization (EMBO) postdoctoral fellowship. Though women were less successful than men in winning fellowships, the authors report that the reasons for inequity are not clear. Their analysis illustrates that sucessful women applicants had a higher average number of publications than sucessful men applicants but that the impact value of sucessful mens' publications and number of first authorships was slightly higher than for women. They suggest that their findings are inconclusive but stress the need to examine and uncover potential gender bias in review processes.

Ginther, Donna K. "Why Women Earn Less: Economic Explanations for the Gender Salary Gap in Science." Association for Women in Science Magazine 33, no. 4 (Winter 2004): 6-10.
Abstract: The recent book, From Scarcity to Visibility, edited by sociologist Scott Long, documents the progress women have made in scientific careers. Women are increasingly represented at the PhD level in academic science across all fields. Although women have increased numerically and achieved more prestigious positions in scientific academia, the question remains as to whether the rewards of salary and promotion have achieved equality with those of men. This article examines gender differences in the salaries of academic science through the lens of economic theory. It finds that women's salaries lag behind those of men's and are not fully explained by differences in productivity.

Glazer-Raymo, Judith. Shattering the Myths: Women in Academe. Baltimore, Md: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999.

Guillory, Elizabeth A. "The Black Professoriate: Explaining the Salary Gap for African-American Female Professors." Race Ethnicity and Education 4, no. 3 (2001): 129-47.
Available online
Notes: Examines salary differential between black female faculty and their white male/female and black male counterparts.
Abstract: "Most research on race and gender salary differentials neglects the intersection of these two factors, ignoring the unique situation of black female professors. This study determines the salary differentials between black female faculty and their white male/female and black male counterparts. Descriptive statistics are used to measure the differentials, while multiple regression analysis is implemented to explore how certain factors influence them. The results suggest that there are significant race/gender differentials in earnings such that black women earn less than white and black males, but earn slightly more than white females. Additionally, the factors controlled for explain a larger portion of these salary differentials than do race or gender. These finding indicate that although race/gender differences in faculty earnings do exist, they are largely explained by variations in rank, tenure, publications, and other salary-related factors."

Gunter, Ramona and Amy Stambach. "Differences in Men and Women Scientist's Perceptions of Workplace Climate." Journal of Women and Minorities in Science and Engineering 11, no. 1 (2005): 97-116.
Notes: Presents evidences for gender differences in perceptions of workplace climate
Abstract: "The climate of science is often described as 'chilly' toward women and is blamed for women's underrepresentation and slow advancement within science fields. However, evidence of a chilly climate is often indirect. In this study of male and female science faculty members at a major research university, the authors found direct evidence for a chilly climate: A smaller percentage of women than men described their workplace environments in positive terms, and a larger percentage of women than men described uncomfortable, tense, or hostile interactions. Some men and many women said that gender bias might explain women's negative experiences; at the same time, these men and women stated that they could not say for certain that gender bias existed in their departments. Reasons for interviewees' difficulties in identifying and labeling gender bias are discussed.

Haignere, Lois. Paychecks: A Guide to Conducting Salary-Equity Studies for Higher Education Faculty. Washington, DC: American Association of University Professors, 2002.
Notes: (From publisher:) A joint effort of salary-equity researcher Lois Haignere, the AAUP, and the United University Professions, Paychecks is a resource for those who want to analyze bias in faculty salaries or interpret the results of studies presented to them. The new, expanded edition of Paychecks describes ways to detect gender and race bias in current rank, select a salary-equity consultant, remedy bias when it occurs, and accomplish other tasks related to ensuring equity in faculty salaries.

Harrigan, Margaret. Analysis of Gender Equity in 1997 Faculty Salaries at UW-MadisonMadison, WI: University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1999.
Available online
Notes: Update of UW's 1992 pay equity study using regression analyses of faculty salary information from November 1997.
Abstract: "This document represents an update of the pay equity study, using faculty salary information from November 1997. UW Madison contracted with an outside consultant, Delores Conway (Associate Professor of Business and Statistics at the University of Southern California), to advise us with this analysis. We adopted Dr. Conway's recommendations and incorporated them in the analysis described below. The regression results for the university as a whole, and for each of the university's schools and colleges, find no statistically significant gap in salaries between men and women faculty in 1997."

________. Job Security of Academic Staff at UW-Madison by GenderMadison, WI: University of Wisconsin - Madison, 1997.
Available online
Notes: Gender differences in job security for academic staff appointments.
Abstract: "An issue of on-going concern to academic staff is the question of job security. Academic staff appointments may have one of several types of continuity status, implying different levels of job security. . . . Men and women are approximately equally likely to hold indefinite appointments [highest job security]. . . men are slightly more likely to have rolling horizon appointments . . . [but] these differences are toom small to be considered statistically significant."

Hyde, Janet S. and Donna M. Jones. Gender Equity Study of Faculty Pay: University of Wisconsin-MadisonMadison, WI: University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1992.
Abstract: Executive summary describes the findings of the 1990 UW-Madison pay equality study and suggests actions to correct pay disparities. (Note: complete report is missing, only the table of contents and executive summary are available.)

Jackson, Linda A., Philip D. Gardner, and Linda A. Sullivan. "Explaining Gender Differences in Self-Pay Expectations: Social Comparison Standards and Perceptions of Fair Pay." Journal of Applied Psychology 77, no. 5 (Oct. 1992): 651-63.
Available online
Abstract: This research examined gender differences in self-pay expectations and the factors that mediate these differences. On the basis of Major and Konar's (1984) model, five mediators were considered: career paths, objective job inputs, perceived job inputs, job facet importance, and social comparison standards. The mediating role of a sixth factor, fair pay standards, was also examined. College seniors planning to enter a variety of occupational fields completed the Career Expectations Survey, which assessed their self-pay expectations and the six mediating factors. Findings indicated that, regardless of occupational field, women had lower career-peak self-pay expectations than men. The best mediator of the gender gap in self-pay expectations was fair pay standards. Implications for future research on the construct of fair pay standards and its importance in understanding the gender wage gap are discussed.

Leonhardt, David. "It's a Girl! (Will the Economy Suffer?)." The New York Times (Oct. 2003): Section 3, Page 1, Column 1.
Notes: Summary of economics study that indicates couples who have only female children are more likely to divorce than those with male children. Article explores possible causes and ramifications for the statistic and discusses the possible affects on birth rates of parents being able to select the gender of their child.

Long, J. Scott. "The Origins of Sex Differences in Science." Social Forces 68, no. 4 (June 1990): 1297-316.
Available online
Notes: Small disadvantages accumulate and have a significant negative impact on women scientists' careers.
Abstract: "The sociology of science has clearly established the presence of sex differences in scientific productivity and position. This article examines the processes leading to the lower productivity of female scientists at the completion of their doctoral training. Collaboration with the mentor is found to be the most important factor affecting productivity. For females, opportunities for collaboration are significantly decreased by having young children. As a consequence, the presence of young children has an adverse, indirect effect on the productivity of female scientists during graduate study. This effect does not exist for males. In addition to differences in the process of collaboration, many small differences that disadvantage women and advantage men are found in the levels of resources affecting productivity and in the mechanisms by which resources are translated into productivity. The concentration of small disadvantages provides a further explanation of sex differences in productivity at the start of the career. Since early advantages and disadvantages have been found to accumulate, this article provides an essential first step in understanding sex differences in scientific productivity and position that emerge during the career."

Long, J. Scott et al. From Scarcity to Visibility: Gender Differences in the Careers of Doctoral Scientists and Engineers. Washington, D.C: National Academy Press, 2001.
Notes: Examines differences in career outcomes of men and women in science and engineering in the 1970s and 80s.
Abstract: Although women have made important inroads in science and engineering since the early 1970s, their progress in these fields has stalled over the past several years. This study looks at women in science and engineering careers in the 1970s and 1980s,documenting differences in career outcomes between men and women and between women of different races and ethnic backgrounds. The panel presents what is known about the following questions and explores their policy implications: In what sectors are female Ph.D.s employed? What salary disparities exist between men and women in these fields? How is marital status associated with career attainment? Does it help a career to have a postdoctoral appointment? How well are female scientists and engineers represented in management?

Long, J. Scott and others. From Scarcity to Visibility: Gender Differences in the Careers of Doctoral Scientists and Engineers - Slides From Lecture.
Notes: Slides from lecture based on Long's book.

Magrane, Diane. "In Pursuit of Equity: Examining Compensation Systems for U.S. Medical Faculty." Faculty Vitae (Jan. 2005).
Available online
Notes: Gender pay equity in academic medicine
Abstract: Article reviews the issue of compensation equity, departing from a grounded example of how gendered divisions in compensation can arise. Provides institutional suggestions for reviewing and ensuring compensation equity in academic medicine.

Major, Brenda. "Gender, Justice, and the Psychology of Entitlement."Sex and Gender, 124-48. Newbury Park: SAGE.
Notes: Women undervalue the monetary worth of their work. An experiment rated subjects performance of a task, then asked subjects how much they should be paid for their efforts. Women requested less payment than men.

Major, Brenda and Ellen Konar. "An Investigation of Sex Differences in Pay Expectations and Their Possible Causes." The Academy of Management Journal 27, no. 4 (Dec. 1984): 777-92.
Available online
Abstract: Discrepancies in the pay expectations of male and female management students were investigated, and potential causes of such discrepancies were explored. Females were found to have significantly lower career-entry and career peak pay expectations than males. Sex differences in career paths, comparison standards, and job facet importance were identified as potentially important explanations for these sex differences.

Martin, Beth Ann. "Gender Differences in Salary Expectations When Current Salary Information Is Provided." Psychology of Women Quarterly 13, no. 1 (1989): 87-96.
Available online
Abstract: Focuses on gender differences in salary expectations. Estimation of salaries of university graduates; Identification of the average salaries of men and women; Factors contributing to the reduction of salaries among women.

McIlwee, Judith Samson and J. Gregg Robinson. Women in Engineering Gender, Power, and Workplace Culture. SUNY Series in Science, Technology, and Society. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1992.

MIT. MIT Faculty SurveyMassachusetts Institute of Technology, 2004.
Available online

MIT Committee on Women Faculty. A Study on the Status of Women Faculty In Science at MITBoston, MA: Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 1999.
Available online
Notes: MIT Report on women faculty.
Abstract: In 1995 the Dean of Science established a Committee to analyze the status of women faculty in the six departments in the School of Science. The Committee submitted a report of its findings in August, 1996 and amended reports in 1997 and 1998. The Committee discovered that junior women faculty feel well supported within their departments and most do not believe that gender bias will impact their careers. Junior women faculty believe, however, that family-work conflicts may impact their careers differently from those of their male colleagues. In contrast to junior women, many tenured women faculty feel marginalized and excluded from a significant role in their departments. Marginalization increases as women progress through their careers at MIT. Examination of data revealed that marginalization was often accompanied by differences in salary, space, awards, resources, and response to outside offers between men and women faculty with women receiving less despite professional accomplishments equal to those of their male colleagues. An important finding was that this pattern repeats itself in successive generations of women faculty. The Committee found that, as of 1994, the percent of women faculty in the School of Science (8%) had not changed significantly for at least 10 and probably 20 years. The Committee made recommendations for improving the status of senior women faculty, addressing the family-work conflict for junior women faculty, and increasing the number of women faculty. The Dean of Science took immediate actions to effect change and these have already resulted in highly significant progress including an increase in the number of women faculty. This collaboration of faculty and administration could serve as a model for increasing the participation of women, and also of under-represented minorities, on the faculty of other Schools at MIT. This is an important initiative since, even with continued effort of this magnitude, the inclusion of substantial numbers of women on the Science and Engineering faculties of MIT will probably not occur during the professional lives of our current undergraduate students. The inclusion of significant numbers of minority faculty will lag for even longer because of the additional problem of a shortage of minority students in the pipeline.

Moore, Christine. "The Unfeminine Mystique: Why Do Female Faculty Leave the University of Wisconsin?" Madison Magazine (May 1993): 32-36.
Notes: Climate issues contribute to most female junior faculty members leaving prior to tenure.
Abstract: This article asks why female faculty members leave the University of Wisconsin. The experiences of two women faculty (Denice Denton and a faculty member who chose to remain anonymous) illustrate the challenges faced by women at UW along the tenure track. Climate is noted as the primary problem, with lack of mentoring, departmental factions, and individual faculty members as contributing causes. One of the women faculty members profiles suggests that "shaking up the system of faculty governance" (36) might provide a long-term solution to the problem.

National Council for Research on Women (U.S.) and Mary Thom. Balancing the Equation: Where Are Women and Girls in Science, Engineering and Technology?. New York: National Council for Research on Women, 2001.
Notes: National Council for Research on Women - Report

Oaxaca, Ronald L. and Michael R. Ransom. "Regression Methods for Correcting Salary Inequities Between Groups of Academic Employees." New Directions for Institutional Research, no. 115 (Fall 2002): 91-103.
Available online
Notes: Article from special journal issue on gender pay gaps discusses regression methods that can be applied in conducting a gender pay equity study.
Abstract: Offers university administrators a guide for using mechanical, statistical methods for the process of eliminating gender salary inequity among the faculty. Examples of how the techniques may be applied to differences between men and women and Afro-Americans and Whites; Background on salary inequity correction methods; Regression models of salary; Computation of salary adjustments. [from Academic Search Elitle{

Olson, Kristen. "Who Gets Promoted? Gender Differences in Science and Engineering Academia." Journal of Women and Minorities in Science and Engineering 8, no. 3/4 (2002): 347.
Notes: Rewards of academic science - tenure and promotion - are differentially distributed by gender.
Abstract: "Using a nationallly representative sample of doctoal academic scientists and engineers, this study examines gender differences in the likelihood of having tenure and senior faculty ranks after controlling for academic age, field, doctoral origins, employing educational institution, productivity, postdoctoral positions, work activities, and family characterics. Logistic regressions show that many of these controls are significant; that biology and employment at comprehensive univeristies have a gender-specific advantage for women; and that postdoctoral positions, teaching instead of doing administrative work, and having children have a gender-specific disadvantage. Although the statistical methods employed here do not reveal the exact nature of how gender inequities in science and engineering careers arise, the author suggests that they exist."

Palepu, Anita et al. "Specialty Choices, Compensation, and Career Statisfaction of Underrepresented Minority Faculty in Academic Medicine." Academic Medicine 75, no. 2 (Feb. 2000): 157-60.
Notes: URM medical school faculty are significantly less staisfied with their careers than majority faculty.
Abstract: "Despite efforts to increase the numbers of underrepresented minorities (URMs), only 3.9% of medical school faculty are URMs. The authors compared the specialty choices, compensation, and career satisfaction of minority faculty with those of their majority counterparts to determine whether there were differences that might affect the recruitment and retention of minority faculty." Rely on results from a self-administered survey sent to a stratified random sample of 3,013 eligible full-time salaried faculty in 24 randomly selected medical schools, the authors conclude that "there was no significant difference in adjusted mean compensation between majority, URM, and other-minority faculty . . . [but that] URM faculty were significantly less satisfied with their careers (adjusted scores: 60 versus > 65; p = .001) and more often considered leaving academic medicine within five years (58% versus < 45%).

Perrucci, Carolyn Cummings. "Minority Status and the Pursuit of Professional Careers: Women in Science and Engineering." Social Forces 49, no. 2 (Dec. 1970): 245-59.
Available online
Notes: There are disparities between "career paths and career sucess" (257) of men and women scientists and engineers; women scientists and engineers in careers exhibit different marriage and childbearing patterns than those not in careers.
Abstract: "The integration of a visible minority group into the American occupational structure; specifically, the sexual integration of science and engineering is investigated by comparing selected social characteristics of career with noncareer women and men with similar training in these fields. Deviation of science, and especially engineering, from the ideal-typical model of rational professions is indicated in the finding of significant "selective patterning" of careers and differential career success by sex of college graduate, which is evident when they first enter the labor market and becomes more pronounced during the course of their careers. It is suggested that discrepancies between occupational values of women employees and their perceptions of their actual work situation may indicate potential problems in their employment. Finally, possible adaptations to mitigate the effect of "deviant" sex status in the professional context are identified for two age groups of women scientists and engineers in terms of patterns in their temporal ordering of the events of college graduation, employment, marriage, and childbearing."

Pribbenow, Christine Maidl, Sue Lottridge, and Deveny Benting. The Climate for Women Faculty in the Sciences and Engineering: Their Stories, Successes, and Suggestions Christine Maidl Pribbenow, Sue Lottridge, and Deveny Benting. 2004.
Notes: Report on Interviews with 26 Women faculty in science and engineering
Abstract: Reports on interviews conducted with 26 women faculty in the sciences and engineering. The interviews were conducted for three purposes: (1) to serve as a baseline from which to measure changes in women's experiences on campus; (2) to inform development of a survey for all faculty on compus; and (3)to help WISELI determine the direction of its research and program activities. The interviews covered a wide range of topics but concentrated on the following eight areas: the hiring and promotion process; the climate in each woman's unit; balancing professional and personal life; career development and recognition; gender issues in various aspects of their professional life; use of campus resources; thoughts about the future for women on campus; and WISELI's role in improving the climate for women on campus.

Probert, Belinda, Peter Ewer, and Kim Whiting. "NTEU: Gender Pay Equity Study." May 1998. [http://www.nteu.org.au/getinvolved/equal/women/archive/2073].
Notes: Gender-Pay Equity Study - Australia
Abstract: This research project was designed to explore and describe the nature and extent of income differentials between male and female academic and general staff in Australian universities, and to identify the key variables which explain the gender gap. A central question to be answered was whether gendered differences in income involve inequity as this is understood by industrial tribunals and relevant legislation. Initial findings suggested that without controlling for any other factors, male academic staff earn on average $439 more than women per fortnight. Separate analysis of male and female incomes however, shows, predictably, that the most important determinant of income is Level of employment, for both male and female academics. Full time equivalence is also, naturally enough, an important predictor of income, although it has a much bigger impact on women's income than men's. Perhaps less predictably, extra payments such as market loadings, performance pay and income from consulting, are not a significant predictor of income, except in relation to consulting. While less than 10 percent of male academics earn extra income from consulting, they earn over twice as much on average from consulting than do women.

Reskin, Barbara F. "Sex Differences in Status Attainment in Science: The Case of the Postdoctoral Fellowship." American Sociological Review 41, no. 4 (Aug. 1976): 597-612.
Available online
Notes: Women scientists' careers do not follow the normal status-attainment process, this might be accounted for by differences in professional committment and/or sex discrimination in science.
Abstract: "This article compares the status-attainment process for women and men, using career data for a sample of 450 doctoral chemists. The study focuses on the role of the postdoctoral fellowship, a career event that is thought to validate predoctoral performance and foster later professional success. Analyses of covariance show sex interactions for both the predoctoral determinants and the occupational consequences of the postdoctoral experience (award receipt and prestige), which persist when marital status is taken into account. Such sex-fellowship interactions fail to occur only for the impact of the fellowship on productivity, indicating a prestigious award-enhanced scientific output for both sexes. These results seriously question whether achievement norms govern status attainment for female scientists and whether science is, in fact, unique in its normative structure."

Roos, Patricia A. and Mary L. Gatta, Gender Equity in the Academy: Beyond the M.I.T. Report, (unpublished).
Notes: Paper asseses the state of women in the academy several years after the M.I.T. report; the authors suggest that the situtation for women seems to have improved somewhat over time but that women continue to face inequality in academia.
Abstract: "In 1999, the M.I.T. report burst into the national news via a high profile article in the New York Times. The article included M.I.T.'s admission that it had (albeit, unconsciously) discriminated against its high profile women faculty. Within short order, other universities began similar studies of their treatment of women faculty, media commentators both praised and lambasted the report, funding agencies made grant dollars available to universities to rectify inequities, and academe saw a resurgence of interest in gender equity issues. Employing in-depth quantitative and qualitative data from a large Arts and Sciences unit at a major state university (State U.), the present paper provides an updated report on the status of women faculty relative to their male counterparts. Our analyses find that, relative to their past invisibility, women faculty have made impressive inroads into academic positions, including into the tenured ranks. Few, however, have reached the best paid, most prestigious ranks, and few have reached academic leadership positions. Although women's earnings relative to men have increased, research funds and other forms of discretionary funding still favor men. Finally, while blatant discrimination has lessened, more subtle inequities continue to persist in academe."

Schneider, Alison. "Why Don't Women Publish As Much As Men?" The Chronicle of Higher Education 45, no. 3 (Sept. 1998): A14-A16.
Available online
Notes: Article discusses potential reasons why women faculty publish less than men.
Abstract: At the top of the productivity scale in most academic fields there are few if any women to be found. Overall, statistics show that women publish less than their male counterparts. Potential explanations for this gap are discussed, including: women's overrepresentation in teaching-oriented positions, slow pace of PhD completion as compared to men, difficulty establishing mentoring relationships, departmental biases, and family responsibilities.

Sonnert, Gerhard and Gerald James Holton. Who Succeeds in Science? the Gender Dimension. New Brunswick, N.J: Rutgers University Press, 1995.

Stanford University, Office of the Provost. Stanford University, Status of Women FacultyStanford, CA: 2002.

Stanford University, Provost's Advisory Committee on the Status of Women Faculty. Report of the Provost's Advisory Committee on the Status of Women FacultyStanford, CA: Stanford University, 2004.
Available online
Notes: Report assesses the status of women faculty at Stanford University, with special emphasis on science and engineering faculty.
Abstract: Following in the footsteps of the MIT Faculty Study, this report utilizes survey data to assess the status of women faculty at Stanford University. The report focuses on several key issues, including: recruitment & retention of faculty, distribution of resources and recognition, and quality of life. Findings indicate that women faculty at Stanford are significantly more likely to have concerns about campus and departmental climates. A number of recommendations for institutional action are provided in the conclusion.

Tomaskovic-Devey, Donald and Sheryl Skaggs. "An Establishment-Level Test of the Statistical Discrimination Hypothesis." Work and Occupations 26, no. 4 (Nov. 1999): 422-45.
Available online
Notes: Exclusion from desirable positions rather than productivity explains the lower wages women and minorities earn when compared with majority males.
Abstract: This article explores the basic assumption of statistical discrimination theory, which holds that women and minorities earn lower wages because they, on average, have lower productivity. Employer exploitation of women and minorities and social closure by advantaged employees are advanced as alternative explanations for the lower wages of women and minorities. The authors first demonstrate that there are substantial gender and racial wage penalties net of human capital for a sample of employees. The primary analysis focuses on the sample of private-for-profit establishments in which these individuals are employed. Establishment productivity as well as aggregate salaries and wages and profits are regressed on the sex and race composition of the establishment with other factors that may influence establishment productivity. Findings show that neither the sex nor race compositions of the workplace are associated with productivity. The authors interpret the results to be most consistent with a social closure (the exclusion of women and minorities from desirable positions within the firm) account of gender and racial earnings inequality.

Toutkoushian, Robert K. "Editor's Notes." New Directions for Institutional Research, no. 115 (Fall 2002): 1-7.
Available online
Notes: Editor's remarks introduce a special issue of the New Directions in Institutional Research journal that addresses the gender pay gap.

Toutkoushian, Robert K. and Emily P. Hoffman. "Alternatives for Measuring the Unexplained Wage Gap." New Directions for Institutional Research, no. 115 (Fall 2002): 71-89.
Available online
Notes: Article in a special journal issue on the gender pay gap discusses various methodologies to measure pay gaps.
Abstract: nvestigates the effects of several different specifications of a salary model on findings of gender differences in salary and on their correction. Objectives of institutional salary studies; Features of the usual salary study; Factors to consider in conducting a single-institution salary-equity study; Effects of different salary models on results of equity study. [from Academic Search Elite]

Toutkoushian, Robert K. Bellas Marcia L. "The Effects of Part-Time Employment and Gender on Faculty Earnings and Satisfaction." The Journal of Higher Education 74, no. 2 (Mar. 2003-Apr. 2003): 172-95.
Available online
Abstract: A study investigated the effect of gender and part-time employment on the earnings and satisfaction of higher education faculty. Data were obtained from the 1993 National Survey of Postsecondary Faculty on 24,441 individuals in full- and part-time academic employment. Findings revealed that factors associated with supply clearly led some participants, particularly females, to prefer part-time employment in academe. With regard to demand, factors such as experience, educational achievement, and type of institution attributed to the high concentrations of some participants in part-time employment. Compared to their full-time counterparts, part-time participants were satisfied with their overall jobs and salary, despite the fat that they received less compensation than their full-time colleagues, even when expressed on a per-hour basis. Other findings of the study are discussed.

University of Wisconsin-Madison. Inquiry Into the Issues Impacting Career Progression of Probationary Faculty at the University of Wisconsin-MadisonMadison, WI: Univerisity of Wisconsin-Madison,
Notes: Survey brochure (date unknown) presents questions relating to climate, work/life interface, tenure process and career development aimed at junior faculty.

University of Wisconsin - Madison, Office of the Provost. "Office of the Provost: Gender Equity in Faculty Salaries (2000/2001)." [http://www.wisc.edu/provost/GEFS.html].
Notes: Webpage provides links to several documents relevant to the 2000/2001 UW Gender Pay Equity Study

Valian, Virginia. Why So Slow? the Advancement of Women. Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press, 1998.

Vetter, Betty M. "Women Scientists and Engineers: Trends and Participation." Science 214, no. 4527 (Dec. 1981): 1313-21.
Available online
Notes: Women in science and engineering face unequal access to employment and compensation, at all levels.
Abstract: "Women have made tremendous strides in educational attainment in science and engineering over the past decade, increasing their proportion of doctorate awards in these fields from 7 percent in 1965 to 23 percent in 1980. But they still have higher unemployment rates and lower salaries than men in all fields of science and engineering, at all degree levels, and at all levels of experience; and the disparities between men and women widen with higher degree levels and with years of experience. Graduate enrollments indicate continuing increases over at least the next several years in degree awards to women, but their access to equal employment and advancement opportunities is not yet assured."

Washington University Senate Council Gender Pay Equity Committee for Arts and Sciences and all Other Schools Except the Medical School . Final Report of the Senate Council Gender Pay Equity Committee for Arts and Sciences and all Other Schools Except the Medical School 2000.
Available online
Notes: Gender Pay Equity Study - Washington University
Abstract: The Senate Council convened a committee in November, 1997 to review the progress of all eight schools at the University toward carrying out the recommendations of the previous Gender Pay Equity Committee Final Report dated September, 1993. The committee concluded that for the Schools of Arts & Sciences, Art, Architecture, Business, Engineering and Applied Science, Law, and Social Work, no statistically significant evidence of gender bias in the setting of salaries exists.

Wenniger, Mary Dee, ed. Women in Higher Education. Vol. 9 - 11; 13 - 14. Madison, WI: Wenniger Company, 2000.
Notes: Monthly newsletter Wenniger, Mary Dee and Mary Helen Conroy. Gender Equity or Bust!: On the Road to Campus Leadership With Women in Higher Education. The Jossey-Bass Higher and Adult Education Series. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers, 2001.
Notes: Book is a compliation of articles from the Women in Higher Education newsletter; it explores advances of women in higher education and addresses challenges/obstacles that remain in womens' leadership in higher education.
Abstract: "Since 1992 women faculty and administrators have turned to Women in Higher Education as their barometer of campus climate and survival guide to the topology of career advancement. Now, in this lively compendium of articles from the newsletter's first eight years, editors Mary Bee Wenniger and Mary Helen Conroy provide a wild ride across the turbulent gender equity landscape of American higher education. They offer a broad view of the progress women have made toward achieving full and fair career recognition, and assess the distance that remains to be covered. Readers will appreciate the book's blend of serious commentary, sage advice, and healthy doses of wry humor, as well as sucessful strategies from women who have broken the academic glass ceiling and scaled campus career ladders."

Xie, Yu and Kimberlee A. Shauman. Women in Science: Career Processes and Outcomes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2003.
Notes: Book explores the social causes of underrepresentation of women in science, looking in particular at education, socialization, and the gender parenting gap.
Abstract: "Why do so few women choose a career in science - even as they move into medicine, law, and other professions in ever-greater numbers? In the most comprehensive study of gender differences in science careers ever conducted, Women in Science provides a systematic account of how U.S. youth are selected into and out of science eduation in early life, and how social forces affect career outcome later in the science labor market. Studying the science career trajectory in its entirety, the authors attend to the causal influences of prior experiences on career outcomes as well as the interations of career and family. While attesting to the progress in women in science, the book also reveals continuing gender differences in mathematics and science education and in the progress and outcomes of scientists' careers. The authors explore the extent and causes of gender differences in undergraduate and graduate science education; scientists' geographic mobility; research productivity, promotion rates, and earnings; and in the experience of immigrant scientists. They conclude that the gender gap in parenting responsibilities is a critical barrier to the futher advancement of women in science."