WISELI BIBLIOGRAPHY
Organized by Subject
Updated June 20, 2007

Women and leadership

American Council on Education. "Department Chair Online Resource Center." [http://www.acenet.edu/resources/chairs].
Notes: Listing of articles, bibliographies, and links "for those heading departments and for administrators who work with department leaders."

American Council on Education, Office of Women in Higher Education. Breaking the Barriers: A guidebook of strategies
Notes: Discusses strategies for developing campus leaders
Abstract: This report "provides campus leaders with strategies for reviewing campus practices in leadership development, fostering career advancement, improving the workplace and campus climate, and establishing mentoring programs." Examples of successful programs submitted by university presidents are included as is advice about collecting evidence that demonstrates success of campus programs.

________. Breaking the Barriers: Presidential Strategies for Enhancing Career Mobility
Notes: Advice for advancing women faculty and administrators in higher education
Abstract: "Using material provided primarily by presidents through interviews, focus groups, and written commentary, [this report] seeks to offer a set of philosophical and strategic guidelines for advancing women faculty and administrators in higher education. Each chapter begins with a scenario based on real-life experiences and crafted by presidents that is followed by practical responses from other presidents. Each chapter then presents a synopsis of major problems in the topic area and provides examples of programs that offer workable solutions to these problems.

American Society for Cell Biology. Career Advice for Life Scientists. Women in Cell Biology, Volume Editor Elizabeth Marincola. Bethesda, MD: American Society for Cell Biology, 2002.
Notes: Career advice for women in the life sciences.
Abstract: Book is a compilation of monographs written by scientists on a variety of career relevant topics, including: teaching, time/lab management, tenure, balancing work and family, and alternative careers. Concluding monographs discuss why women leave science and how to revise current strategies of women in science to open the door to more women leaders in science.

Anonymous. "Encouraging Science Teaching Innovation." Academic Leader 20, no. 6 (June 2004): 1, 3.
Available online
Notes: Article discusses HHMI's and Prof. Jo Handelsman's efforts to encourage innovative teaching methods in science.
Abstract: "There is a common view in many science disciplines that professors can be good at either teaching or research, but not both. And some faculty are concerned that being viewed publicly as being involved in improving science teaching will harm their research reputations. Although progress has been slow, published pedagogical research by Nobel Prize winners and National Academy of Science members and support from prestigious science organizations is helping to reform science education."

Arenson, Karen W. "More Women Taking Leadership Roles at Colleges." The New York Times (New York), 4 July 2002, A, 3.
Available online
Notes: Women and University leadership
Abstract: Article discusses increasing numbers of women accepting and being recruited into university administrative posts. One woman administrator, at Princeton, argues that increasing women in administration is a solution to women faculty's lagging positions.

Associated Press. "Women a Minority of Tenured Faculty and Administrators." , 17 Feb. 2004.
Available online
Notes: "Women comprise 58 percent of the nation's 13 million college undergraduates and, in 2002, earned more doctorates than men. They're a dominant force on college campuses -- until they receive a degree.... Others say that, while universities seem like bastions of idealism, smashing through the glass ceiling in the academic world can be particularly tough. 'Higher education has traditionally been the playground of male academics,' said Leslie Annexstein, director of the legal advocacy fund for the American Association of University Women. "It's their turf. And sharing that turf is difficult for many of them."

Bakken, Lori L. "Who Are Physician-Scientists' Role Models? Gender Makes a Difference." Academic Medicine 80, no. 5 (May 2005): 502-6.
Notes: Interpretation of survey data points to the importance of the gender of role models for "physician-scientists-in-training" (i.e. medical students training for clinical research).
Abstract: "Purpose: To determine for educational purposes whether differences exist in the role models physician-scientists-in-training or in their early years of career development envision when they self-assess their abilities to perform clinical research. Method: A 35-item clinical research self-efficacy questionnaire was administered to 251 health care professionals who attended programs at the University of Wisconsin-Madison from 2002-2004. Three questions were included to determine the sex, role, and qualities of the expert envisioned by participants. Frequency distributions were computed for each response and variables were compared by gender using chi-square analysis and Fisher exact test. Results: Ninety-five physicians-in-training and junior faculty physicians responded to the questionnaire. Seventy-one percent of female and 95% of male respondents reported their envisioned experts to be male. The most frequently reported role of the envisioned expert was that of a mentor who was a faculty member in the respondent's own department (72% women, 60% men). The three most frequently reported qualities of the envisioned expert were "multiple publications," "scientific knowledge," and "supportiveness." However, women more frequently reported "communication skills" and "problem-solving abilities" than did men. This difference was statistically significant and largely due to the frequency of qualities selected by women whose envisioned expert was female. Conclusions: The results of this study emphasized the importance of a role model's gender in the career development of physician-scientists."

Bem, Sandra. "The Measurement of Psychological Androgyny." Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 42, no. 2 (1974): 155-62.
Available online
Notes: Article describes the Bem Sex-Role Inventory and its uses
Abstract: "This article describes the development of a new sex-role inventory that treats masculinity and feminity as two independent dimensions, thereby making it possible to characterize a person as masculine, feminine, or 'androgynous' as a function of the difference between his or her endorsement of masculine and feminine personality characteristics. Normative data are presented, as well as the results of various psychometic analyses. The major findings of conceptual interest are: (a) the dimensions of masculinity and femininity are empirically as well as logically independent; (b) the concept of psychologiical androgyny is a reliable one; and (c) highly sex-typed scores do not reflect a general tendency to respond in a socially desirable direction, but rather a specific tendency to describe oneself in accordance with sex-typed standards of desirable behavior for men and women."

Bensimon, Estela Mara, Kelly Ward, and Karla Sanders. "Creating Mentoring Relationships and Fostering Collegiality."The Department Chair's Role in Developing New Faculty into Teachers and Scholars Estela Mara Bensimon, Kelly Ward, and Karla Sanders, 113-37. Bolton, MA: Anker, 2000.
Notes: Practical approach to department chairs' role in fostering mentoring and collegiality to enable the development and retention of young faculty.
Abstract: Mentoring is an important aspect of the development of new facutly members. Ensuring that new faculty recieve effective mentoring may be more or less the responsibility of the department chair. Effective mentoring should be structured around annual plans which chart out goals for new faculty's progress. Department collegiality is also important for the development and retention of junior faculty. The chair's role in maintaining and improving collegiality is discussed. Strategies for coping with uncollegial faculty and issues specific to women and minority junior faculty are discussed. The chapter concludes with checklists of actions that department chairs can implement.

Bickel, Janet, Good Books on Women's Advancement, (unpublished).2003.
Notes: Bibliography of books offering advice on leadership and career advancement for women
Abstract: Janet Bickel - career development coach developed this bibliography of books focusing on advice on leadership and career advancement for women.

________. "Whose Mission Are You Living?: The Whys and Wherefores of Goal-Setting." Academic Physician & Scientist (Mar. 2004): 3-5.
Available online
Notes: Advice on goal-setting and self-awareness strategies for long-term career success, emphasis on academic medicine.
Abstract: "Many, if not most, physicians and scientists consider their profession a vocation -- a calling that will never be just a 'job.' Career building starts with 'know-how' (i.e., technical skills), but that is only the beginning. Successful careers also depend on 'knowing why,' that is [on developing] continuing insights into the sources of your motivation and energy. It is never too early or too late to work at expanding this understanding of yourself, but this work is especially critical for early-career professionals."

Biernat, Monica and Kathleen Fuegen. "Shifting Standards and the Evaluation of Competence: Complexity in Gender-Based Judgment and Decision Making." Journal of Social Issues 57, no. 4 (Winter 2001): 707-24.
Available online
Notes: Stereotypes establish lower minimum standards and higher confirmatory standards for women than for men.
Abstract: Gender stereotypes regarding task competence may lead perceivers to set different standards for diagnosing competence in women versus men. Specifically, stereotypes may prompt lower minimum standards (or initial screening criteria) but higher confirmatory standards for women than men (Biernat & Kobrynowicz, 1997). In two studies simulating hiring decisions, predictions were that women would be (1) more likely than men to make a short list for a job but (2) less likely than men to be hired for the same job. Results were generally consistent with predictions only among female participants (Studies 1 and 2), among those exposed to a female experimenter (Study 1), and among those held accountable for their decisions (Study 2). The role of motivational factors in the setting of standards is discussed.

Brown, F. William and Dan Moshavi. "Herding Academic Cats: Faculty Reaction to Transformational and Contingent Reward Leadership by Department Chairs." Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies 8, no. 3 (Winter 2002): 79-95.
Available online
Notes: Survey of 440 university faculty in 70 academic departments revealed that transformational leadership was more effective than transactional leadership
Abstract: A study involving 440 university faculty members in 70 different academic departments explored the relationship between transformational and contingent reward leadership behaviors by university department chairs and faculty satisfaction with supervision, willingness to expend extra effort and organizational effectiveness. Results indicated that the idealized influence (charisma) factor of transformational leadership was significantly more predictive of desired organizational outcomes than has been reported in other settings. Surprisingly, contingent reward was not predictive in this setting. The unique characterics of the employment arrangements and psychological contract between faculty and their institutions may make charismatic, relationship-oriented leadership a key determinant of department chair effectiveness.

Butler, Doré and Florence L. Geis. "Nonverbal Affect Responses to Male and Female Leaders: Implications for Leadership Evaluations." Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 58 (1990): 48-59.
Available online
Notes: Negative facial reactions to assertive women in a group problem solving session; women perceived negatively when they show leadership.
Abstract: Tests the hypothesis that female leaders would elicit more negative nonverbal affect responses from other group members than male leaders offering the same initiatives. Male and female subjects participated in 4-person discussions in which male or female confederates assumed leadership. During the discussion subjects' nonverbal affect responses to the confederates were coded from behind one-way mirrors. Female leaders received more negative affect responses and fewer positive responses than men offering the same suggestions and arguments. Female leaders received more negative than positive responses, in contrast to men, who received at least as many positive as negative responses. The data demonstrate a concrete social mechanism known to cause devaluation of leadership, and thus support a more social interpretation of female leadership evaluations, in contrast to previous interpretations based on private perceptual bias.

Carli, Linda L. "Gender and Social Influence." Journal of Social Issues 57, no. 4 (Winter 2001): 725-41.
Available online
Notes: Discusses research that showing that men are generally more influential than women and presents strategies for enhancing women's effectiveness as leaders.
Abstract: This article explores strategies for enhancing women's effectiveness as leaders by first recognizing that leadership itself is gendered and is enacted within a gendered context, two themes that recur throughout this issue. These contexts exist along a continuum ranging from male-dominated, hierarchical, performance-oriented, power-expressive and thus masculinized contexts at one extreme to transformational contexts that stress the empowerment of followers at the other pole. Each context suggests different strategies for making women leaders effective, emphasizing women-specific recommendations in masculinized contexts that focus on status enhancement and the legitimation of women leaders in contrast to innovative contexts with broader task goals that prove more congenial for women, as well as men, leaders.

Carli, Linda L. "Gender Differences in Interaction Style and Influence." Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 56, no. 4 (Apr. 1989): 565-76.
Notes: Experimental study of gender and influence in same-sex and mixed-sex dyads.
Abstract: Observed 128 subjects in mixed- and same-sex dyads to examine the effect of interaction on sex differences in influence. The dyads discussed two topics on which they disagreed. In the second conversation, one member of each dyad was told to influence the other. Gender differences were greater in same-sex dyads; that is women in same sex dyads exhibited more stereotypically feminine behaviors, men in same sex dyads exhibited more stereotypically male behaviors, and both men and women exhibited less sex-stereotyped behaviors in mixed-sex dyads. The author argues that this indicates that the subjects' behaviors were affected by their partners gender. The author also found that both men and women increased their use of stereotypically masculine behaviors, including more disagreements when attempting to be influential - this despite the findings that subjects were more influenced by a partner who agreed with them and less by one who disagreed. Subjects showed more agreement and positive social behavior when paired with a woman and more disagreement and task behavior when paired with a man. Although women were more easily influenced, the author argues that this effect was caused by the partners' behavior - agreeing more often when paired with a woman than with a man - not by gendered differences in subjectability to influence.

________. "Gender, Language, and Influence." Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 59, no. 5 (Nov. 1990): 941-51.
Available online
Notes: Women spoke more tentatively than men -- but only in mixed-sex dyads. Women who spoke tentatively were more influential with men and less influential with women.
Abstract: Mixed- and same-sex dyads were observed to examine effects of gender composition on language and of language on gender differences in influence. Subjects discussed a topic on which they disagreed. Women were more tentative than men, but only in mixed-sex dyads. Women who spoke tentatively were more influential with men and less influential with women. Language had no effect on how influential men were. In a second study, 120 subjects listened to an audiotape of identical persuasive messages presented either by a man or a woman, half of whom spoke tentatively. Female speakers who spoke tentatively were more influential with male subjects and less influential with female subjects than those who spoke assertively. Male speakers were equally influential in each condition.

Carli, Linda L. and Alice H. Eagly. "Gender, Hierarchy, and Leadership: An Introduction." Journal of Social Issues 57 (2001): 629-36.
Available online
Notes: Introduction to Special Issue on Gender and Leadership
Abstract: Although women's status has improved remarkably in the 20th century, in many societies women continue to lack access to power and leadership compared with men. This issue reviews research and theory concerning women's leadership. The articles included in the issue provide evidence of bias in the evaluation of women, discuss effects of gender stereotypes on women's influence and leadership behaviors, and evaluate strategies for change. This introductory article provides a brief summary of changes in women's status and power in employment and education and the absence of change at the upper echelons of power in organizations. Also included is an outline of the contributions of the other articles in the issue.

Carli, Linda R. "Gender, Interpersonal Power, and Social Influence." Journal of Social Issues 55, no. 1 (Spring 1999): 81-99.
Available online
Notes: Women have greater difficulty exerting influence than do men, particularly when they attempt to use influence that conveys competence and authority.
Abstract: This article reviews research on gender differences in power and their effect on social influence. Evidence indicates that men generally possess higher levels of expert and legitimate power than women do and that women possess higher levels of referent power than men do. These differences are reflected, to some extent, in the influence strategies used by men and women and, more clearly, in gender differences in social influence. Women generally have greater difficulty exerting influence than men do, particularly when they use influence that conveys competence and authority. These findings indicate that gender differences in influence are mediated by gender differences in power.

Carlson, Dawn S., K. Michele Kacmar, and Dwayne Whitten. "What Men Think They Know About Executive Women." Harvard Business Review 84, no. 9 (2006): 28.
Available online
Notes:
Abstract: Survey results indicate that business men's self-reported attitudes toward women in senior management have improved when compared with earlier surveys, but that discrepancies betwen men's and women's attitudes remain. The survey also revealed that men believe conditions for women executives are better than women themselves report.

Carnes, Molly. "Just This Side of the Glass Ceiling." Journal of Women's Health 5, no. 4 (1996): 283-86.
Abstract: Based on her own experience as of only a very few tenured women physicians in her department, Carnes shares her observations from "looking through the glass ceiling at the largely male power structure controlling the department of medicine and the medical school' and from her occassional forays "to the other side of the glass ceiling." She shares her thoughts on the following topics: "why I do not want to be chairman, why I believe so many men do want to be charman, and why even if I did want to be chairman, I probably could not."

Carnes, Molly et al. "NIH Director's Pioneer Awards: Could the Selection Process Be Biased Against Women." Journal of Women's Health 14, no. 8 (2005): 684-91.
Available online
Notes: Several aspects of the process of nomination, evaluation, and selections disadvantaged women candidates for the NIH Pioneer Award and explain why no women received this award.
Abstract: The authors question why no women were among the scientists who received the National Institutes of Health (NIH) Pioneer Award. Using "research on the impact of gender-based assumptions on evaluation of men and women in traditionally male fields, such as science" they conclude that several aspects of the process of nomination, evaluation, and selection inadvertently favored men. They "encourage the NIH to embark on self-study and to educate all reviewers regarding an evidence-based approach to gender and evaluation."

Carroll, James B. and Walter H. Gmelch. "The Relationship of Department Chair Roles to Importance of Chair Duties." Paper Presented at the Annual Meeting of the Association for the Study of Higher Education (Minneapolis, MN, 28 October-1 November 1992). WISELI Articles File - Climate, http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICDocs/data/ericdocs2/content_storage_01/0000000b/80/24/55/71.pdf. 1992.
Available online
Notes: The emphasis of department chairs varies across disciplines and by gender, but in general chairs tend to focus on developing the department as compared to the university as a whole.
Abstract: This study investigated what university and college department chairpersons believe are the most important duties of their position, how they view their roles, and the relationship of perceived roles and duties. Possible role definitions included seeing department chair work as leader, scholar, faculty developer, or manager. The study surveyed 800 department chairs from 100 higher education institutions with a 36-item questionnaire. Of those, 539 were returned. Analysis of the results indicated that chairs view those items which are of immediate benefit to the faculty and departments they chair as more important than activities which may benefit the university as a whole. Specifically, of the 10 chair duties selected as most important, eight describe aspects of faculty development, suggesting that chairs see assisting colleagues as of primary importance in their job. A clear association was seen between duties in which chairs believe they are effective and duties which they regard as most important. Gender differences between male and female chairs were observed with female chairs giving greater emphasis to remaining current in their discipline. In addition, leader and manager chairs who chair soft discipline departments gave greater emphasis to providing informal faculty leadership than did their hard discipline counterparts. [ERIC]

Chesler, Naomi C., Peg Boyle Single, and Borjana Mikic. "On Belay: Peer-Mentoring and Adventure Education for Women Faculty in Engineering." Journal of Engineering Education (July 2003): 257-62.
Available online
Notes: Paper provides an evaluation of an outdoor program intended to build ties for effective mentoring among women faculty in engineering; authors suggest that the program was effective in accomplishing its goals.
Abstract: "This paper reports on an intervention program designed to cultivate effective peer mentoring among a small group of women engineering faculty members from different academic institutions. Adventure education, comprised of linked intellectual and physical challenges in an outdoor setting, was chosen as the vehicle to transform the group into a highly functioning team. Based on qualitative analysis of post-workshop essays, the intervention resulted in informational, psychosocial, and instrumental mentoring benefits that could serve to support and enhance the participants' academic careers. This paper provides a blueprint for the design of similar workshops for groups that could benefit from additional peer-mentoring and network opportunities in the engineering academy."

Commission of the European Communities. Women and Science: Excellence and Innovation - Gender Equity in Science, SEC(2005) 370. Brussels: Commission of the European Communities, 2005.
Available online
Notes: European Union report on EU initiatives to increase the particiaption of women in science and engineering and progress towards benchmark goals.
Abstract: "This report, sumbitted at the request of the Research Council of June 2001, gives an overview of women and science actions implemented at the European level since the Council Resolution and the results achieved. In particular: 1) Activities of the European Commission to promote gender equality in science through the Research Framework Programmes and in the context of the Science and Society Action plant, and 2) Progress made in increasing the participation of women in science in the EU Member States since 1999, taking into account EU enlargment also. At the Council's request, attention is paid to the progress made by the Commission in reaching the target of "40% participation of women at all levels in implementing and managing research programmes." The report also includes data on the progress of the Women in Industrial Research (WIR) initiative, as requested by the European Council in its Resolution of November 2003."

Coughlin, Linda, Ellen Wingard, and Keith Hollihan. Enlightened Power: How Women Are Transforming the Practice of Leadership. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 2005.
Notes: An edited collection of essays that explores women in leadership and explores how gender is changing definitions and practices of leadership.
Abstract: Part One includes essays that "emphasize the importance of enlarging our understanding of power beyond traditional forms of control to embrace a new type of power - one that is internally genereated and derived from a way of being." The essays in Part Two present "new pathes for expressing one power in the workplace-through bold expression, risk-taking, innovation, conflict resolution, new models of thinking about structure and network, and the creation of work envionments large enough in spirit to accept our diverse selves as leaders across boundaries and cultural divides." Part Three presents "the stories of visionaries, activists, teachers, mentors, and business leaders of socially responsible organizations who address crucial questions affection humanity in our precarious times."

Davies, Paul G., Steven J. Spencer, and Claude M. Steele. "Clearing the Air: Identity Safety Moderates the Effects of Stereotype Threat on Women's Leadership Aspirations." Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 88, no. 2 (2005): 276-87.
Available online
Notes: Stereotype threat can influence both performance and aspirations - and creating "identity-safe" environments can reduce the influence of sterotype threat.
Abstract: Considerable research documents how stereotype threat undermines performance, but little research has been conducted on how stereotype threat influences aspirations. This study examines the effect of stereotype threat on women's aspirations for leadership. "Exposing participants to gender-stereotypic TV commercials designed to elicit the female stereotype, the present research explored whether vulnerability to stereotype threat could persuade women to avoid leadership roles in favor of nonthreatening subordinate roles. Study 1 confirmed that exposure to the stereotypic commercials undermined women's aspirations on a subsequent leadership task. Study 2 established that varying the identity safety of the leadership task moderated whether activation of the female stereotype mediated the effect of the commercials on women's aspirations. Creating an identity-safe environment eliminated vulnerability to stereotype threat despite exposure to threatening situational cues that primed stigmatized social identities and their corresponding stereotypes."

Denton, Margaret and Isik Urla Zeytinoglu. "Perceived Participation in Decision-Making in a University Setting: The Impact of Gender." Industrial and Labor Relations Review 46, no. 2 (Jan. 1993): 320-331.
Available online
Notes: Women faculty members are less likely to feel they are participants in university decision-making.
Abstract: "This analysis of responses to a 1988 survey of full-time faculty at a medium-sized university in central Canada indicates that women were less likely than men to perceive themselves as participating in university decision-making, even with controls for other relevant variables. Academic rank, visible or ethnic minority status, and membership in networks were also influential. No significant effect was found for the possession of a Ph.D., the amount of teaching experience, the possession of tenure, having a mentor, or the proportion of women in the division's faculty."

Dingerson, Michael R., John A. Rodman, and John F. Wade. "Procedures and Costs for Hiring Academic Administrators." Journal of Higher Education 53, no. 1 (Jan. 1982-Feb. 1982): 63-74.
Available online
Notes: Federal regulations requiring universities to expend 'extra efforts' to hire underrepresented groups (women and ethnic minorities) appear to have increased the cost associated with hiring academic administrators but has not increased the proportion of underrepresented groups hired.
Abstract: "Hiring procedures and costs were investigated as they relate to the filling of academic administrative positions advertised nationally since the 1972 Affirmative Action legislation. Of concern was the hiring of internal versus external and minority versus white male candidates. Substantial cost increases have resulted in little change in the sex and ethnic makeup of academic administrators."

Dreher, George F. "Breaking the Glass Ceiling: The Effects of Sex Ratios and Work-Life Programs on Female Leadership at the Top." Human Relations 56, no. 5 (May 2003): 541-62.
Available online
Notes: Article finds that the provision of work-life resources is related to an increase in the number of women in senior management postions; this finding suggests that employers can expand their pool of senior management talent by making work-life resources available to their female employees.
Abstract: "Data, at the level of the corporation, revealed that the percentage of lower-level managerial positions held by women in the 1980s and early 1990s was positively associated with the number of work-life human resource practices provided in 1994 and with the percentage of senior management positions held by women in 1999. In turn, the number of work-life human resource practices provided in 1994 was positively associated with the percentage of senior management positions held by women in 1999 and partially mediated the effect of lower-level female representation on senior level female representation. These results support the blending of a social contact theory perspective and a strategic human resource management perspective when explaining the glass-ceiling phenomenon, and have important implications for managing human resources and individual careers. Four hypotheses were tested on 72 large US corporations to analyze the ability for women to compete for and move into top management positions."

Dreifus, Claudia. "A Conversation With Shirley Tilghman: Career That Grew From an Embryo." New York Times (New York), 8 July 2003, 2, 2, 2.
Available online
Abstract: Interview with Shirley Tilghman, molecular geneticist, and now President of Princeton University. Covers issues of women in science, women in administration.

Dyke, Patricia. "WABio Starts Up." I-Street (Nov. 2002).
Notes: Reports on start-up events of WABio (Women Advancing Bioscience).
Abstract: The founding of the WABio group presents women in science an opportunity to network with a diverse group of women scientists outside of their companies.

Eagly, Alice H. and Steven J. Karau. "Role Congruity Theory of Prejudice Toward Female Leaders." Psychological Review 109, no. 3 (July 2002): 573-98.
Available online
Notes: Perceived incongruities between the female gender role and leadership roles leads to 2 forms of prejudice: (a) perceiving women less favorably than men as potential leaders and (b) evaluating behaviors associated with leadership less favorably when they are exhibited by women.
Abstract: A role congruity theory of prejudice toward female leaders proposes that perceived incongruities between the female gender role and leadership roles leads to 2 forms of prejudice: (a) perceiving women less favorably than men as potential occupants of leadership roles and (b) evaluating behavior that fulfills the prescriptions of a leader role less favorably when it is enacted by a woman. One consequence is that attitudes are less positive toward female than male leaders and potential leaders. Other consequences are that it is more difficult for women to become leaders and to achieve success in leadership roles. Evidence from varied research paradigms substantiates that these consequences occur, especially in situations that heighten perceptions of incongruity between the female gender role and leadership roles.

Elliot, James R. and Ryan Smith. "Race, Gender, and Workplace Power." American Sociological Review 69, no. 3 (June 2004): 365-86.
Available online
Notes: Women and minorities face increasing barriers to advancement as they move-up the hierarchy of workplace power. Black women in particular experience inequality as a result of direct discrimination.
Abstract: "Survey data support hypotheses regarding differential access to workplace power among women and minorities relative to white men. Specific findings indicate that, relative to white men, all groups encounter increasing inequality at higher levels of power, but only black women seem to experience this form of inequality as a result of direct discrimination. Further analysis indicates that network assistance is more a response to this form of discrimination than an indirect cause. Finally, analysis shows that most groups attain power through homosocial reproduction, but what differs is the opportunity to engage in such reproduction, wherein white men excel. These findings imply that while women and minorities face lower odds than white men of achieving higher levels of workplace power, the reasons for this disadvantage vary among respective groups and thus will likely require different remedies."

Ely, Robin J. "The Power in Demography: Women's Social Constructions of Gender Identity at Work." Academy of Management Journal 38, no. 3 (1995): 589-634.
Available online
Notes: Study compared law firms with low and relatively higher proportions of senior women. Found that sex roles stereotyping was more problematic when few women were in senior positions.
Abstract: This study examined how women's proportional representation in the upper echelons of organizations affects professional women's social constructions of gender difference and gender identity at work. Qualitative and quantitative data were used. Results suggest that sex roles are more stereotypical and more problematic in firms with relatively low proportions of senior women. This research also found that women responded to these constraints in a range of ways and identifies five response profiles.

EurActive. "Report Argues Business Case for Women in Science." (May 2006).
Available online
Abstract: "A report on women in dustrial research provides companies with hard economic evidence on why they should aim at gender balance in R&D and in senior positions to improve their economic performance.

European Commission, Directorate-General for Research. She Figures 2006: Women in Science, Statistics and IndicatorsBelgium: European Communities, 2006.
Available online
Abstract: "She Figures 2006 shows that women remain a minority among researchers in the EU (29% in 2003, a slight increase from 27% in 1999), but that the number of women in research is increasing (plus 4%, compared to 2.4% for men). This represents an increase of some 140,000 researchers in the period, of which 39% were women. While this indicates a continued positive trend overall, we should not forget that women remain underrepresented in science, especially in leading positions. . . . [The data] demonstrate that women's intellectual potential, and their contribution to society are not being fully capitalised upon. In particular, their participation is dramatically low in certain branches of the natural sciences and in engineering and technology, which are key R&D areas. Women are seriously under-represented in the business enterprise sector where the EU's R&D is most highly intensive; and in senior academic grades and influential positions where strategies are set, policies are developed, and the agenda for the future is determined."

Evon, Darcy. "New Intiatives to Help Female Entrepeneurs." Chicago Sun-Times (Chicago), 21 Oct. 2002, 58.
Available online
Notes: Report announces the creation of WABio.
Abstract: The Advancing Women in Bioscience organization was formed to help promote women biotech entrepeunurs by providing a forum for networking. (To find this article -- follow the link above to Nexis-Lexis. Step 1: select "general news." Step 2: select "major papers." Step 3: Enter "Evon" as Author AND "female entrepreneurs" as Headline. Step 4: select "all available dates". Step 5: enter "Chicago Sun-Times.")

Families and Work Institute, Catalyst, and Boston College Center for Work and Family. Leaders in a Global Economy: A Study of Executive Women and Men
Available online
Abstract: The Leaders in a Global Economy project resulted from a unique partnership and first-time collaboration among three non-profit research organizations: Families and Work Institute, Catalyst, and the Boston College Center for Work and Family. The study presents findings that are critical to understanding what companies need to do in order to recruit, advance, and retain their top talent, both women and men, so they remain productive and competitive in today's global economy. The study recommends changes needed to improve the advancement of the next generation of leaders.

Fels, Anna. "Do Women Lack Ambition?" Harvard Business Review 82, no. 4 (Apr. 2004): 50-60.
Available online
Notes: Women's gender identities and contemporary social norms act as hidden barriers to career achievement; advice on fostering ambition and overcoming these barriers is presented.
Abstract: "The article focuses on the social and institutional discrimination challenging women. Studies document the fact that women receive less recognition for their achievements than men do. Developing skills and having them recognized fuels motivation that is vital to learning, performance, and ambition. The lack of adequate social support, continuing career opportunities, and financial protection are obstacles for women pursuing competitive professions. The two tenets that emerge from the Bem Sex Role Inventory of traits that define femininity place women in the context of a relationship and require them to provide for others. Hidden barriers in career development include the cultural idea that women should subordinate [their] needs for recognition to those of others. Expertise and recognition of accomplishments outside the family are necessary for ambition to thrive in women."

Flynn, Francis J. and Daniel R. Ames. "What's Good for the Goose May Not Be As Good for the Gander: The Benefits of Self-Monitoring for Men and Women in Groups and Dyadic Confilcts." Journal of Applied Psychology 91, no. 2 (2006): 272-81.
Available online
Notes: Self-monitoring behaviors can help women overcome negative gender stereotypes, increase their influence in groups, and gain recognition for their contributions.
Abstract: "The personality construct of self-monitoring accounts for differences in the degree to which people evaluate and control their behavior in social situations." Relying on research that suggests self monitoring can affect "important interpersonal dynamics" and "important employee outcomes such as promotions, interview success, network position, individual performance, and job satisfaction," the authors argue that self-monitoring behavior can benefit women by helping them "detect and counteract the use of negative gender stereotypes." Women who are high self-monitors are more able that low self-monitors to increase their influence in groups and positively effect group member's perceptions of their contributions.

Fox, Mary Frank and Carol Colatrella. "Participation, Performance, and Advancement of Women in Academic Science and Engineering: What Is at Issue and Why." Journal of Technology Transfer 31, no. 3 (2006): 377-86.
Available online
Notes: Reports on semi-structured interviews with women faculty in academic science and engineering.
Abstract: "Using multi-staged methods developed in this research for coding/analysis of interview data, this article portrays women's reported experiences of participation, performance, and advancement in academic science and engineering in a major technological institution. The methods and findings have implications for understanding the complexity underlying women's participation and performance, and for practices and policies to support advancement of women faculty, particularly those in research universities."

Fuegen, Kathleen and Monica Biernat. "Reexamining the Effects of Solo Status for Women and Men." Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 28, no. 7 (2002): 913-25.
Available online
Notes: Evaluation of solo member in a group showed that bias based on solo status did not influence evaluation of solo women by members of their workgroup.
Abstract: This article explores the outcomes of solo status and the processes by which solos are evaluated within a group decision-making context. Six-person groups of varying gender composition were given a task to solve individually and as a group. Following group discussion, participants evaluated themselves and their groupmates on task-oriented and social-oriented skills. Unlike previous research, solo women were evaluated positively by their groupmates, and they suffered no performance decrements resulting from solo status. Furthermore, the evaluations solo women received accurately reflected their contributions to the group, although men's favorable evaluations in their groups were not similarly explained. Results are discussed in terms of a model in which social reality mediates the relationship between women's solo status and outcome, whereas perceiver stereotyping may contribute to favorable evaluations of men.

Gersick, Connie J. G., Jean M. Bartunek, and Jane E. Dutton. "Learning From Academia: The Importance of Relationships in Professional Life." Academy of Management Journal 43, no. 6 (Dec. 2000): 1026-44.
Available online
Notes: Gender differences in mentoring relationships are described.
Abstract: In-depth interviews with business school faculty members suggest that work relationships are more than strategically chosen means to career mobility. Relationships are career-defining ends as well, and negative relationships may be as consequential as helpful ties. Findings also showed significant gender differences: women, more than men, told stories about harm; men, more than women, told stories about help. Workplace relationships may play different roles for professionals and managers, and men's and women's different relational experiences may foster different career logics, or ways of striving for success

Gersick, Connie J. G., Jean M. Bartunek, and Jane E. Dutton. "Learning From Academia: The Importance of Relationships in Professional LIfe." Academy of Management Journal 43, no. 6 (2000): 1026-44.
Available online
Notes: Men reported more helpful, supportive relationships among their colleagues; Women reported more harmful, unsupportive relationships.
Abstract: "In-depth interviews with business school faculty members suggest that work relationships are more than strategically chosen means to career mobility. Relationships are career-defining ends as well, and negative relationships may be as consequential as helpful ties. Findings also showed significant gender differences: women, more than men, told stories about harm; men, more than women, told stories about help. Work-place relationships may play different roles for professionals and managers, and men's and women's different relational experiences may foster different career logics, or ways of striving for success."

Gibbons, Ann. "Key Issue: Tenure." Science 255, no. 5050 (Mar. 1992): 1386-88.
Available online
Notes: "Does the old-boy network keep women from leaping over this [tenure] crucial career hurdle?"
Abstract: This article, part of a special issue on Women in Science, highlights the low numbers of tenured female faculty in science and engineering as a major problem. The author suggests that barriers, including lower female productivity, must be overcome in order for women in science and engineering to have an impact.

Glazer-Raymo, Judith. "Women Faculty and Part-Time Employment." in Gendered Futures in Higher Education: Critical Perspectives for Change ed, Becky Ropers-Huilman, 97-109. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 2003.
Abstract: "Women are now the majority of part-time students, part-time faculty, and part-time professional staff." This results primarily from "affirmative action and equal opportunity policies" aimed at increasing recruitment of minority and women students, faculty, and staff. This article examines the impact of part-time employment on women faculty. Although initially implemented in part as a positive strategy for increasing the representation of women in faculty ranks some unintended consequences accompanied its institutionalization. For example, part-time employment became "an attractive and low-cost alternative to full-time tenure-track commitments" and led to the creation of "a second-class" of citizens. Glazner-Razmo makes three recommendations "to advance a feminist policy agenda". These recommendations are: "Women must become agents of social change and advocates for women's concerns," "Women should be encouraged to serve on boards of trustees and other such positions of power and influence," and "Women should be encouraged to seek positions as deans, department and division charis, changing the rules of the game and becoming advocates as well as mentors of other women."

Glick, Peter et al. "Evaluations of Sexy Women in Low- and High-Status Jobs." Psychology of Women Quarterly 29 (2005): 389-95.
Available online
Notes: Experimental finding suggest that a sexy self-presentation negatively influency competency ratings for women in high- but not low-status jobs.
Abstract: We hypothesized that women who dress in a sexy versus business-like manner evoke negative emotions and perceptions of lesser competence if employed in high- (but not low-) status jobs. Male and female undergraduates evaluated a videotaped female target whose physical attractiveness was held constant, but who was (a) dressed in sexy or business-like attire and (b) allegedly either a manager or a receptionist. Participants exhibited more negative affect toward the sexily attired manager and rated her as less competent than the neutrally attired manager. This effect was fully mediated by emotional reactions. In contrast, the appearance manipulation had no effect on emotions toward or competence ratings of the receptionist. These findings suggest that a sexy self-presentation harms women in high-, but not low-, status jobs.

Gmelch, Walter H. and Gordon S. Gates. "The Stressful Journey of the Department Chair: An Academic in Need of a Compass and Clock." Paper Presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association (San Francisco, CA, 18-22 April 1995). WISELI Articles File - Climate, http://ezproxy.library.wisc.edu/login?url=http://search.epnet.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=eric&an=ED385188. 1995.
Available online
Notes: Investigates the relationship between chair roles, stress, and demographic charracteristics.
Abstract: his study examined the relationship between five stress factors (faculty role, administrative relationship, role ambiguity, perceived expectations, and administrative task) and specific personal, positional, and organizational variables in relation to their effect on the roles of department chairpersons. Using a chair stress index, administrative role questionnaire, chair task inventory, general information questionnaire, and an organizational and departmental ratings questionnaire, 523 department chairs at research and doctorate-granting universities throughout the United States were surveyed. The study found that the less role ambiguity as well as role conflict, and the more satisfaction chairs derived from their position, the less stress they tended to experience. Chairpersons who rated their institutions highly experienced lower levels of faculty role stress, administrative relationship stress, role ambiguity stress, and administrative task stress than chairs who did not. Multiple regression analysis showed that three independent variables (intrinsic reasons for accepting the position, total satisfaction with the position, and role conflict) had a significant role on faculty role stress. Age, years of experience, and gender were found to have little effect on chairperson stress. [ERIC]

Green, Cheryl Evans and Valarie Greene King. "Sisters Mentoring Sisters: Africentric Leadership Development for Black Women in the Academy." Journal of Negro Education 70, no. 3 (Summer 2001): 156-65.
Available online
Notes: Mentoring program for Black women in the academy
Abstract: The Sisters Mentoring Sisters (SISTERS) Project was designed to help Black women at a predominantly White Central Florida state university develop career plans and strategies for their personal growth and professional development. . . . Africentric concepts and principles provided a framework for didactic and experiential activities that emphasized three types of individual and organizational support: emotional, informational, and structural.

Greene, Linda, Diversifying Academic Leadership: AASCU Millenium Leadership Institute, (unpublished).2003.
Notes: Power-point notes to a presentation given to WISCAPE Brown Bag Forum outlines objectives and stregies of the AASCU Millenium Leadership Institute.

Hall, Roberta M. and Bernice R. Sandler. Academic Mentoring For Women Students and Faculty: A New Look At an Old Way To Get AheadWashington, D.C.: Association of American Colleges, 1983.
Notes: Report highlights insufficiency of mentoring relationships as a major obstacle for women in academia and provides many institutionally-focused suggestions to encourage/improve mentoring opportunities for women.
Abstract: This report summarizes the history of mentoring, addresses the insufficency of mentoring relationships for women in academia. It asserts that mentoring is crucial for women's sucess in academia. Topics covered include: barriers women face in establishing mentoring relationships, issues encountered by women of special status (minority women, disabled women, etc.), and innovative approaches to mentoring. Conclusions provide advice for women on how to find a mentor and build a mentoring relationship and many suggestions on how institutions can encourage and support women in mentoring relationships. A list of resources is included.

Heffernan, Margaret. The Naked Truth: A Working Woman's Maifesto on Business and What Really Matters. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2004.
Abstract: Surveys more than a dozen women CEO's and leaders, covers many topics relevant to women in positions of leadership.

Heilman, Madeline and Tyler G. Okimoto. "Why Are Women Penalized for Success at Male Tasks?: The Implied Communality Deficit." Jouranl of Applied Psychology 92, no. 1 (Jan. 2007): 81-92.
Available online
Notes: Providing evidence of women's communal qualities ( nurturing, maternal, caring, etc.) mitigaties penalties for success at male tasks.
Abstract: "In 3 experimental studies, the authors tested the idea that penalties women incur for success in traditionally male areas arise from a perceived deficit in nurturing and socially sensitive communal attributes that is implied by their success. The authors therefore expected that providing information of communality would prevent these penalties. Results indicated that the negativity directed at successful female managers-in ratings of likability, interpersonal hostility, and boss desirability-was mitigated when there was indication that they were communal. This ameliorative effect occurred only when the information was clearly indicative of communal attributes (Study 1) and when it could be unambiguously attributed to the female manager (Study 2); furthermore, these penalties were averted when communality was conveyed by role information (motherhood status) or by behavior (Study 3). These findings support the idea that penalties for women's success in male domains result from the perceived violation of gender-stereotypic prescriptions."

Heilman, Madeline E. "Description and Prescription: How Gender Stereotypes Prevent Women's Ascent Up the Organizational Ladder." Journal of Social Issues 57, no. 4 (2001): 657-74.
Available online
Notes: Gender bias and expectations about what women are like and how they should behave lead to bias in evaluations and impede women's progress.
Abstract: This review article posits that the scarcity of women at the upper levels of organizations is a consequence of gender bias in evaluations. It is proposed that gender stereotypes and the expectations they produce about both what women are like (descriptive) and how they should behave (prescriptive) can result in devaluation of their performance, denial of credit to them for their successes, or their penalization for being competent. The processes giving rise to these outcomes are explored, and the procedures that are likely to encourage them are identified. Because of gender bias and the way in which it influences evaluations in work settings, it is argued that being competent does not ensure that a woman will advance to the same organizational level as an equivalently performing man.

Heilman, Madeline E., Michael C. Simon, and David P. Repper. "Intentionally Favored, Unintentionally Harmed? The Impact of Sex-Based Preferential Selection on Self-Perceptions and Self-Evaluations." Journal of Applied Psychology 72 (1987): 62-68.
Available online
Notes: Women rate their own ability lower when they believe they have been chosen on this basis of their gender.
Abstract: "In this laboratory study we compared the effect of sex-based preferential selection with that of merit-based selection on the reactions of 64 male and 76 female undergraduates serving a task leaders. Subjects succeeded or failed on the task while working with another individual (a confederate). As predicted, only women's self-perceptions and self-evaluations were negatively affected by the sex-based preferential selection method relative to the merit-based method. When selected on the basis of sex, women devalued their leadership performance, took less credit for successful outcomes, and reported less interest in persisting as leader; they also characterized themselves as more deficient in general leadership skills. These findings suggest that when individuals have doubts about their competence to perform a job effectively, nonwork-related preferential selection is likely to have adverse consequences on how they view themsleves and their performance. Implications of the finding for the implementation of affirmative action programs are discussed."

Heim, Pat and Susan Murphy. In the Company of Women: Turning Workplace Conflict into Powerful Alliances. New York: Tarcher/Putnam, 2001.
Abstract: From Publishers Weekly: "Now that women own nearly 50% of all businesses, the authors reason, women's worst enemies at work are just as likely to be other women. To support their thesis, which may offend some readers but will also generate attention, the authors both business consultants address differences between women's and men's behaviors. Declaring that women should be more conscious of their reaction if other women try to undermine a promotion or honor coming their way, they suggest, "that's the price we have to pay for the strong alliances we make with other women." This provocative, practical book deserves a wide readership."

Home-Douglas, Pierre. "Painting Everyone Into the Picture." ASEE Prism 13, no. 5 (Jan. 2004).
Available online
Notes: Profile of Maria Klawe, Princeton's female engineering dean, and her strategic goals to broaden the reach of engineering in the University.
Abstract: "Princeton's new engineering dean Maria Klawe wants to broaden engineering so that all the school's undergraduates learn about the impact of technology on society."

Jeffers, Susan. Feel the Fear and Do It Anyway: Dynamic Techniquies for Turning Fear, Indecision, and Anger into Power, Action and Love. reissue edition ed.Ballantine Books, 1988.

Kanter, Rosabeth Moss. Men and Women of the Corporation. New York: Basic Books, 1977.

________. "Men and Women of the Corporation Revisited." Management Review 76, no. 3 (May 1987): 14-15.
Available online
Notes: Kanter touches on advances that have been made for women in the corporate world, with more women in lower and middle management, and discusses changes that still need to be made in allowing women access to the inner circles of power. Typically, problems women encounter reflect problems a corporation or industry is having as a whole, which need to be addressed. The corporate dependence upon tradition, which locks women out of positions of power, will only be detrimental in the long run.

Kantrowitz, Barbara and Wingert Pat. "The Group: A New Generation of Women Is Running Some Ot the Country's Most Important Universities." Newsweek 140, no. 1 (July 2002): 52-53.
Available online
Notes: Top women administrators
Abstract: Discusses and profiles women who are top administrators at prestigious universities

Kolb, Deborah M. and Judith Williams. The Shadow Negotiation: How Women Can Master the Hidden Agendas That Determine Bargaining Success. New York: Simon and Schuster, 2000.

Kray, Laura J., Adam D. Galinsky, and Leigh Thompson. "Reversing the Gender Gap in Negotiations: An Exploration of Stereotype Regeneration." Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 87, no. 2 (2002): 386-409.
Available online
Notes: Stereotype threat and negotiation.
Abstract: This study examines how gender stereotypes affect performance in mixed-gender negotiations. Recent work demonstrating that stereotype activation leads to a male advantage and a complementary female disadvantage at the bargaining table is examined. The present investigation regenerates the stereotype of effective negotiators by associating stereotypically feminine skills with negotiation success. In Experiment 1, women performed better in mixed-gender negotiations when stereotypically feminine traits were linked to successful negotiating, but not when gender-neutral traits were linked to negotiation success. Gender differences were mediated by the performance expectations and goals set by negotiators. Experiment 2 regenerated the stereotype of effective negotiators by linking stereotypically masculine or feminine traits with negotiation ineffectiveness. Women outperformed men in mixed-gender negotiations when stereotypically masculine traits were linked to poor negotiation performance, but men outperformed women when stereotypically feminine traits were linked to poor negotiation performance. Implications for stereotype threat theory and negotiations are discussed.

Kress, Susan. "Of Marvelous Acts and Sites of Absurdity: Conflicts of a Feminist Chair." ADE Bulletin, no. 110 (Spring 1995): 15-19.
Available online
Notes: Anectotes from a female chair dealing with department conflicts, politics, and women in academia.

Langdon, Emily A. "Women's Colleges Then and Now: Access Then, Equity Now." Peabody Journal of Education 76, no. 1 (2001): 5-30.
Available online
Notes: Includes discussion of the role women's colleges play in providin women with positive role models, mentoring, leadership, and achievement in male-dominated fields such as math and science.
Abstract: This article sheds some light on the historical contributions of women's colleges and their role in providing access to higher education for women. It also explores their contemporary contributions toward educational equity for women; in particular, this article focuses on the areas of positive role modeling and mentoring, leadership, achievement in the male-dominated major fields such as math and science, and pedagogical and curricular innovations. Although there are other issues that might be raised as we explore the future of women's colleges, these four areas are discussed in greater length in this article.

Lawler, Andrew. "Universities Urged to Improve Hiring and Advancement of Women." Science 313 (Sept. 2006): 1712.
Available online
Notes: Reports on the NAS Report - Beyond Bias and Barriers

LeBold, William K. and Dona J. LeBold. "Women Engineers: A Historical Perspective." PRISM (Mar. 1998): 30-32.
Available online
Notes: "Recognizing the contributions of engineering's 'founding mothers' and celebrating their legacy."
Abstract: Article traces the history of women in engineering in America, begining in the late 1800's. Describes the contributions of several goundbreaking woman engineers and highlights additudinal and educational shifts that have helped to support women in engineering.

Love, Nancy, Karen Thole, and Hassan Aref. "Women Academic Leaders are Key to Transforming Engineering Colleges." Mar. 2004. [http://www.engtrends.com/edit_03-2004.html].
Notes: The culture of engineering tends to discourage women both in academic and leadership postions; the advancement of women in engineering leadership positions is crucial to institutional transformation.
Abstract: "Barriers to women's advancement to leadership positions in engineering academia remain. If women academic leaders are key to transforming engineering colleges, increasing the number of women academic leaders is essential. Institutions such as MIT, Princeton, and Duke have launched internal programs that affect women in science and engineering and address the barriers to women's success. On a national level, the National Science Foundation has recognized the need to develop more women leaders in science and engineering through their Advance Program. In an important shift from past efforts to develop individual women faculty, NSF is now promoting changes in the academic culture that will transform institutional thinking in ways that are more inclusive and supportive of women's contributions. By transforming the institutions through continued deep and pervasive changes, we believe that more women will aspire to become leaders on their own terms (using styles consistent with their value systems) rather than the terms historically defined by their institutions. This increase in women engineering leaders in higher education will encourage more women to pursue engineering degrees and, in turn, engineering careers in the commercial, governmental and academic sectors. As more women pursue these opportunities, the climates must and will become more inclusive and supportive of a diverse workforce."

Lucas, Jeffrey W. "Status Processes and the Institutionalization of Women As Leaders." American Sociological Review 68, no. 3 (June 2003): 464-80.
Available online
Notes: Institutionalization of female leadership can reduce the advantage of men in obtaining leadership postions.
Abstract: "Socially disadvantaged individuals often encounter resistance when they rise to high-status positions. For example, women, according to status characteristics theory, will be disadvantaged relative to men in social interactions, other things being equal. Institutionalizing women as leaders may overcome such disadvantages. Drawing from status characteristics theory and institutional theory, it is predicted that institutionalization of female leadership can reduce the influence gap between women and men by legitimating structures of female leadership. Results of an experiment conducted to test this idea show that, as predicted, male leaders attained higher influence than did female leaders, and leaders appointed on ability attained higher influence than did randomly assigned leaders. Institutionalization, however, reduced the advantage of men such that female leaders appointed on ability when female leadership was institutionalized attained influence as high as male leaders appointed on ability when female leadership was not institutionalized."

Magrane, Diane and Jonathan Lang. "An Overview of Women in Academic Medicine, 2005-06." AAMC Analysis In Brief 6, no. 7 (Oct. 2006).
Available online
Notes: Overview of data on women in academic medicine in 2005-06
Abstract: This brief overview of that data on women in academic medicine in 2005-06 shows that despite the fact that women represent approximately half of all medical students and graduates, they remain underrepresented on medical faculties and in leadership positions.

Martell, Richard F. and Aaron L. DeSmet. "A Diagnostic-Ratio Approach to Measuring Beliefs About the Leadership Abilities of Male and Female Managers." Journal of Applied Psychology 86 (2001): 1223-31.
Notes: Even by using a more comprehensive view of leadership, this article concludes that gendered stereotypes about leadership impede women's advancement.
Abstract: This study departed from previous research on gender stereotyping in the leadership domain by adopting a more comprehensive view of leadership and using a diagnostic-ratio measurement strategy. One hundred and fifty-one managers (95 men and 56 women) judged the leadership effectiveness of male and female middle managers by providing likelihood ratings for 14 categories of leader behavior. As expected, the likelihood ratings for some leader behaviors were greater for male managers, whereas for other leader behaviors, the likelihood ratings were greater for female managers or were no different . . . [T]he perceived likelihood of a number of key leader behaviors was deemed significantly lower for female managers than for male managers . . .[T]his is especially true of the ratings made by male managers, who, by their overrepresentation in senior management positions, are usually the designated decision makers. Although the magnitude of stereotyping effects was small in statistical terms, research clearly demonstrates that even very small gender biases can disadvantage women's organizational mobility.

Martin, Steven C., Robert M. Arnold, and Ruth M. Parker. "Gender and Medical Socialization." Journal of Health and Social Behavior 29, no. 4 (Dec. 1988): 333-43.
Available online
Notes: "Gender socialization" affects women physician's career choices - which tend towards lower paid, lower status positions and specialities - despite their medical socialization.
Abstract: "Although both gender and professional socialization determine physicians' values, attitudes, and behaviors, the relative importance of each varies. Physicians' career paths demonstrate gender differences: women tend to choose primary care fields and rarely enter surgery, they are paid less and are less likely to be self-employed, and they are underrepresented in positions of authority within medical organizations and in academia. Data on practice style reveal striking similarities in physicians' attitudes toward patient care, knowledge, and clinical behavior, but recent work on physician-patient communication reveals important gender differences. These differences suggest that although medical socialization determines most aspects of practice style, a physician's gender can have an important influence on medical practice."

McCracken, Douglas. "Winning the Talent War for Women: Sometimes It Takes a Revolution." Harvard Business Review (Nov. 2000-Dec. 2000): 159-67.
Available online
Notes: Article reviews Deloitte & Touche's efforts to retain women employees by reforming the company's corporate culture; provides action points for changing an organizaiton's culture.
Abstract: "Nine years ago, the professional services firm of Deloitte & Touche realized too many of its talented women were walking out the door. Stopping them was urgent - but it took a deeper change in the organization than anyone expected."

Mervis, Jeffrey. "Diversity: Report Urges National Academies to Improve Status of Women." Science 312, no. 5782 (June 2006): 1859a.
Available online
Notes: Report calls on National Academies to select more women as members and leaders of their organizations and to form standing committees on diversity.
Abstract: An international panel formed to study women in science examined not only women status internationally but also their status within the 90 national academies that had requested the report. The report, published by the Interacademy Council, calls upon National Academies to "first put their own houses in order." It recommends that National Academics select more women members and leaders and establish standing committees to collect, study, and discuss data on gender diversity.

Meyerson, Debra and Maureen Scully. "Tempered Radicalism and the Politics of Ambivalence and Change." Organization Science 6, no. 5 (Sept. 1995-Oct. 1995): 585-600.
Available online
Notes: 'Tempered Radicals,' people whose personal and professional values conflict, can affect change in their professional organizations.
Abstract: "'Tempered Radicals' are individuals who identify with and are committed to their organizations, and are also committed to a cause, community, or ideology that is fundamentally different from, and possibly at odds with the dominant culture of their organization. The ambivalent stance of these individuals creates a number of special challenges and opportunities. Based on interviews, conversations, personal reflections, and archival reports, this paper describes the special circumstances faced by tempered radicals and documents some of the strategies used by these individuals as they try to make change in their organizations and sustain their ambivalent identities."

Nathans, Aaron. "Some Women Prefer Research to Administration." The Capital Times (Madison, WI), 28 2002, A, 4.
Available online
Notes: Article reviews reasons some women academics may choose not to purse University administration; interview with Jo Handlesman.

________. "UW Says There's Room At the Top for Women." Capital Times (Madison, WI), 28 Sept. 2004, A, 1, 5.
Available online
Notes: UW-Madison lags behind other Big-10 schools in women in top leadership positions.
Abstract: UW-Madison lags behind other Big-10 schools in women in top leadership positions - just 16.7% of top positions are held by women. Reasons for the lag are discussed as a instiutional efforts to raise the representation of women and minorities. Story reviews the selection process for provost and chancellor, noting that despite women comprising a majoritiy of candidates men were ultimately selected for postions.

National Research Council. To Recruit and Advance Women Students and Faculty in Science and Engineering. Washington, DC: National Academies Press, 2006.
Abstract: "This guide addresses three issues - recruitment, retention, and advancement - for three populations of women: students, faculty and administrators in science and engineering."

Navetta, Jean-Marie. "Comparing Apples to Apples." AAUW Outlook 98, no. 1 (Fall 2004): 30-31.
Notes: Positive review of Barnett & Rivers "Comparing Apples to Apples: How Gender Myths Are Hurting Our Relationships, Our Children, and Our Jobs."
Abstract: "Same Difference challenges much of what we have accepted and forces us to reevaluate what is often considered a mantra in the equity lexicon. In the end, we are left with a world of new possibilities where equity - not manufactured differences - is the issue."

Nielsen, Joyce McCarl and others. "Vital Variables, Feminist Consciousness, and Insider/Outsider Status in Social Action Research: Confessions From a Feminist Empiricist Project."WISELI Articles Folder - Organizational/Institutional Change, http://advance.colorado.edu/Signspaper.pdf.
Available online
Notes: Article discusses methodological and epistemological contradictions encountered in attempts to measure the impacts of institutional transformation. Authors are affiliated with University of Colorado - Boulder's ADVANCE center.
Abstract: In this backstage tour of a feminist social action research project, we focus on consequential, if routine, methodological tensions that are usually unacknowledged. These are described under three categories: vital variables, feminist consciousness, and insider/outsider status. First, quantitative analyses of salary data show that theoretically vital variables are obscured by university record keeping and routinely excluded from otherwise refined regression analyses, making interpretation of regression results problematic. We launch a series of projects designed to embellish, contextualize, and better interpret these data. Second, feminist consciousness is both a descriptor of the researchers and a dependent variable in this project. Our attempt to measure feminist consciousness juxtaposes feminist empiricist and postmodern thinking, exposing their epistemological contradictions in acutely experiential ways. Third, we explain how our actions as feminist academics with both inside and outside status in the university reveal a fine line between challenging and reinforcing institutional power. These various experiences share a theme of feminist thinking having surpassed conventional methods. We cautiously underscore the value of feminist empiricism even as we describe it as a research paradigm in transition. [Authors]

Niemeier, Debbie A. and Cristina Gonzalez. "Breaking into the Guildmasters' Club: What We Know About Women Science and Engineering Department Chairs at AAU Universities." NWSA Journal 16, no. 1 (2004): 157-71.
Available online
Notes: Women are underrepresented in science and engineering university department leadership roles.
Abstract: At the present rate of progress it would take women until 2149 to achieve parity with men as full professors (Glayzer-Raymo 1999). Progress in academic leadership positions has been equally as slow, particularly at the departmental level. In summer 2000 a survey of approximately 92 percent of the 2,817 departments at research institutions helped to develop a set of baseline demographics for department chairs. For the departments with data available, the results of the survey showed that men chaired nearly 81 percent of the surveyed departments while women chaired approximately 19 percent. With as few as 8 women chairs in 298 engineering departments and less than 6 percent in the 340 math, statistics, earth sciences, chemistry, and physics/astrophysics departments for which data were available, it is clear that women are a very small proportion of these important academic leadership positions. This study discusses the survey results by disciplinary field and reviews the underlying factors that might be contributing to the low proportions of women.

Pinkley, Robin and Gregory B. Northcraft. Get Paid What You'Re Worth: The Expert Negotiators' Guide to Salary and Compensation. New York: St. Martin's Griffin, 2003.

Pribbenow, Christine Maidl, Sue Lottridge, and Deveny Benting. The Climate for Women Faculty in the Sciences and Engineering: Their Stories, Successes, and Suggestions Christine Maidl Pribbenow, Sue Lottridge, and Deveny Benting. 2004.
Notes: Report on Interviews with 26 Women faculty in science and engineering
Abstract: Reports on interviews conducted with 26 women faculty in the sciences and engineering. The interviews were conducted for three purposes: (1) to serve as a baseline from which to measure changes in women's experiences on campus; (2) to inform development of a survey for all faculty on compus; and (3)to help WISELI determine the direction of its research and program activities. The interviews covered a wide range of topics but concentrated on the following eight areas: the hiring and promotion process; the climate in each woman's unit; balancing professional and personal life; career development and recognition; gender issues in various aspects of their professional life; use of campus resources; thoughts about the future for women on campus; and WISELI's role in improving the climate for women on campus.

Pugh, M. D. and Ralph Wahrman. "Neutralizing Sexism in Mixed-Sex Groups: Do Women Have to Be Better Than Men." American Journal of Sociology 88, no. 4 (1983): 746-62.
Available online
Notes: Influence and prestige of women in mixed sex groups
Abstract: The first part of this study supports the contention that in mixed-sex task-oriented groups, women often have less influence and prestige than their talents merit. The second part compares three techniques for changing expectations. Two of them, verbal statements of equality and a demonstration of equality on a related task, had no effect. The third, however, a demonstration of female superiority on a related task, not only changed influence patterns in the experimental group but also transferred to new partners in a second experiment. The authors suggest that their studies confirm the adage that women need to be better than men (not just equally competent) in order to succeed.

Ridgeway, Cecilia L. "Gender, Status, and Leadership." Journal of Social Issues, no. 57 (2001): 4.
Available online
Notes: Beliefs/assumptions about gender and gender roles shape men's and women's behavior and are a major cause of the "glass ceiling."
Abstract: More than a trait of individuals, gender is an institutionalized system of social practices. The gender system is deeply entwined with social hierarchy and leadership because gender stereotypes contain status beliefs that associate greater status worthiness and competence with men than women. This review uses expectation states theory to describe how gender status beliefs create a network of constraining expectations and interpersonal reactions that is a major cause of the "glass ceiling." In mixed-sex or gender-relevant contexts, gender status beliefs shape men's and women's assertiveness, the attention and evaluation their performances receive, ability attributed to them on the basis of performance, the influence they achieve, and the likelihood that they emerge as leaders. Gender status beliefs also create legitimacy reactions that penalize assertive women leaders for violating the expected status order and reduce their ability to gain complaince with directives.

Roos, Patricia A. and Mary L. Gatta, Gender Equity in the Academy: Beyond the M.I.T. Report, (unpublished).
Notes: Paper asseses the state of women in the academy several years after the M.I.T. report; the authors suggest that the situtation for women seems to have improved somewhat over time but that women continue to face inequality in academia.
Abstract: "In 1999, the M.I.T. report burst into the national news via a high profile article in the New York Times. The article included M.I.T.'s admission that it had (albeit, unconsciously) discriminated against its high profile women faculty. Within short order, other universities began similar studies of their treatment of women faculty, media commentators both praised and lambasted the report, funding agencies made grant dollars available to universities to rectify inequities, and academe saw a resurgence of interest in gender equity issues. Employing in-depth quantitative and qualitative data from a large Arts and Sciences unit at a major state university (State U.), the present paper provides an updated report on the status of women faculty relative to their male counterparts. Our analyses find that, relative to their past invisibility, women faculty have made impressive inroads into academic positions, including into the tenured ranks. Few, however, have reached the best paid, most prestigious ranks, and few have reached academic leadership positions. Although women's earnings relative to men have increased, research funds and other forms of discretionary funding still favor men. Finally, while blatant discrimination has lessened, more subtle inequities continue to persist in academe."

Rosser, Vicki J. "Faculty and Staff Members' Perceptions of Effective Leadership: Are There Differences Between Women and Men Leaders?" Equity & Excellence in Education 36, no. 1 (Jan. 2003-Mar. 2003): 71-81.
Available online
Notes: Survey results show that female deans more favorable rated as effective leaders than male deans - contrary to other literative.
Abstract: Discusses the results of a survey examining faculty and staff members' perceptions of the effectiveness with which female and male deans lead their academic units. Results of the survey indicate that female deans were more positively perceived as effective leaders, contrary to some other literature.

Rosser, Vicki J., Linda K. Johnsrud, and Ronald H. Heck. "Academic Deans and Directors: Assessing Their Effectiveness From Individual and Institutional Perspectives." The Journal of Higher Education 74, no. 1 (Jan. 2003-Feb. 2003): 1-25.
Available online
Notes: Methods for assessing the performance of high-level academic administrators and findings from a study utilizing these methods.
Abstract: An adaptation of a presentation made at the 2000 annual meeting of the Association for the Study of Higher Education is presented. A study examined the leadership effectiveness of academic deans and directors from individual and institutional perspectives. Participants were 865 faculty and administrative staff members at a Carnegie Doctoral/Research-Extensive university in the West. Results showed the possibility of measuring leadership effectiveness at both individual and unit levels. Results also showed that greater resources generated led to stronger group perceptions of leadership effectiveness but that dollars allocated from the central budget did not appear to influence perceptions, that deans leading larger units were rated stronger in terms of effectiveness, that female deans were rated stronger in terms of effectiveness, and that department chairs rated the effectiveness of deans more strongly than did other faculty and staff members. Further results and implications of the results are presented. [Wilson Web]

Rudman, Laurie A. "Self-Promotion As a Risk Factor for Women: The Costs and Benefits of Counterstereotypical Impression Management." Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 74, no. 3 (1998): 629-45.
Available online
Notes: Self-promotion, a critical skill for sucess in high status careers, violates female gender norms and women who self-promote incur costs to how others percieve them.
Abstract: "Three experiments tested and extended recent theory regarding motivational influences on impression formation (S. T. Fiske & S. L. Neuberg, 1990 ; J. L. Hilton & J. M. Darley, 1991 ) in the context of an impression management dilemma that women face: Self-promotion may be instrumental for managing a competent impression, yet women who self-promote may suffer social reprisals for violating gender prescriptions to be modest. Experiment 1 investigated the influence of perceivers' goals on processes that inhibit stereotypical thinking, and reactions to counterstereotypical behavior. Experiments 2-3 extended these findings by including male targets. For female targets, self-promotion led to higher competence ratings but incurred social attraction and hireability costs unless perceivers were outcome-dependent males. For male targets, self-effacement decreased competence and hireability ratings, though its effects on social attraction were inconsistent."

Rudman, Laurie A. and Peter Glick. "Prescriptive Gender Stereotypes and Backlash Toward Agentic Women." Journal of Social Issues 57, no. 4 (Winter 2001): 743-62.
Available online
Notes: Women who violate the typical female gender stereotype and exhibit characteristics such as intelligence, ambition, and assertiveness are discriminated against.
Abstract: In an experiment, job description and applicants' attributes were examined as moderators of the backlash effect, the negative evaluation of agentic women for violating prescriptions of feminine niceness (Rudman, 1998). Rutgers University students made hiring decisions for a masculine or "feminized" managerial job. Applicants were presented as either agentic or androgynous. Replicating Rudman and Glick (1999), a feminized job description promoted hiring discrimination against an agentic female because she was perceived as insufficiently nice. Unique to the present research, this perception was related to participants' possession of an implicit (but not explicit) agency-communality stereotype. By contrast, androgynous female applicants were not discriminated against. The findings suggest that the prescription for female niceness is an implicit belief that penalizes women unless they temper their agency with niceness.

Ryan, Gina, ed. Magazine of the Society of Women Engineers. Chicago, IL: Society of Women Engineers, 2002. Sabatier, M., M. Carrere, and V. Mangematin. "Profiles of Academic Activities and Careers: Does Gender Matter? An Analysis Based on French Life Scientist CVs." Journal of Technology Transfer 31, no. 3 (May 2006): 311.
Abstract: "The aim of this paper is to analyze the factors that influence the length of time to promotion for male and female academics. Promotion is defined as elevation to a professorship. We examine the role of academic profiles, which are based not only on publications, but also include activities such as fund raising, consulting, teaching, and managerial appointments (dean of a department for instance). The paper examines the factors that speed up or slow down the progress of an academic career for males and females, respectively, to explore the 'glass ceiling' effects. Survival and duration models are used to test whether the gender differential persists after controlling for observed and unobserved heterogeneity. The originality of this paper lies in the use of duration models to track sex differences in promotion criteria. It highlights that the different criteria of promotion for male and female academics: women have to demonstrate higher involvement in different networks in order to be promoted."

Sandler, Bernice Resnick. Success and Survival Strategies for Women Faculty Members.Association of American Colleges, 1992.
Notes: Advice for women faculty members
Abstract: Presents strategy on "how to help women change their behaviors in order to enhance their own careers" while recognizing shortcomings in the academic system as a whole.

Sapiro, Virginia, Through a Glass Ceiling Darkly: Development in the Political Psychology of Gender Stratification, (unpublished).2003.

Available online
Notes: Barries to women's advancement and how "gatekeepers" can help to overcome them.
Abstract: Considers why barriers to women's advancement in male-dominated social institutions persist despite the committment of male leaders to principles of gender equality. Presents studies showing the influence of unconscious stereotypes and discusses what "gatekeepers" can do to minimize the influence of such stereotypes.

Sax, Linda J. "Career Strategies for Women in Academe by Lynn H. Collins, Joan C. Chrisler, and Kathry Quina, Editors (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1998)." The Journal of Higher Education 72, no. 1 (2001): 101-3.
Available online
Notes: Advice for women on advancement in academia.
Abstract: Book Review: "The book is geared toward helping women find "new armor" in their battle for.career advancement. In particular, in order to get tenure or assume positions of leadership, women need to adopt their own strategies, not simply adopt those that have been traditionally used by men. Further, in order to promote women's individual and group success, women must work with other women, not against, as Athena might have done. The book is organized into four sections. The first three chapters focus on the current standing of women faculty in higher education with respect to status, salary, and other conditions of employment. The next three chapters provide perspectives on how women are perceived in various faculty roles, and what they might do to counteract those perceptions. The next two chapters discuss the challenges to leadership faced by faculty women. Finally, the last two chapters summarize strategies women can adopt to protect themselves from discrimination and improve the overall climate for women faculty. Most chapters conclude with one or two vignettes that provide personal accounts of the experiences of individual women faculty.

Scanlon, Karen Cameron. "Mentoring Women Administrators: Breaking Through the Glass Ceiling." Initiatives 58 (1997): 39-59.
Available online
Notes: Recommends mentoring as a way to offset women's lack of access to the informal systems of career advancement men use to reach the histhest leadership positions in education.
Abstract: Examines women's lack of access to the informal systems of career advancement used by men to reach the highest leadership positions in education. Explores mentoring as a way to assist female administrators, and discusses the mentor-protege relationship, the values and drawbacks of mentoring, and how to acquire mentors.

Schwartz, Robert A. "Reconceptualizing the Leadership Roles of Women in Higher Education: A Breif History on the Importance of Deans of Women." The Journal of Higher Education 68, no. 5 (Sept. 1997-Oct. 1997): 502-22.
Available online
Notes: Rethinking the roles of Deans of Women allows better insight into the historical imporance of women leaders in higher education.
Abstract: In the 1970s Annette Weiner, following Branislaw Malinowski, an earlier pioneer anthropologist and ethnographer, retraced his experiences with the Trobriand Islanders in the South Pacific. Weiner found that Malinowski had overlooked a critical aspect of Trobriand power, prestige, and leadership--the women. Similarly, women in higher education administration, and deans of women in particular, have been overlooked. By retracing the role of the deans and their work we gain new appreciation for women in higher education in the first half of this century. [from JSTOR]

Sczesny, Sabine, Sandra Spreemann, and Dagmar Stahlberg. "Masculine = Competent? Physical Appearance and Sex As Sources of Gender-Stereotypic Attributions." Swiss Journal of Psychology 65, no. 1 (2006): 15-23.
Available online
Notes: Evaluators rater more masculine appearing subjects as more competent leaders regardless of the sex of the subjects.
Abstract: In two experiments, the influence of physical appearance and sex on the attribution of leadership competence was analyzed. Participants (male/female) reacted to stimulus persons from one of four groups varying in terms of sex (male/female) and physical appearance (feminine/masculine). The stimulus persons were introduced via photographs. Dependent measures referred to the attribution of leadership characteristics and were measured either directly via ratings or indirectly via a recognition test. In both experiments, participants attributed higher degrees of leadership competence to persons with typically masculine appearance than to persons with typically feminine appearance, regardless of the person's sex. Only in the experiment with indirect measurement were male persons attributed a higher degree of leadership competence than female persons

Sheridan, Jennifer et al. "Discovering Directions for Change in Higher Education Through the Experiences of Senior Women Faculty." Journal of Technology Transfer 31 (2006): 387-96.
Notes: Discusses the use of "discovery interviews" to gain greater understanding of the experiences of senior women faculty in science and engineering and to incorporate the insights gained into efforts to foster institutional transformation.
Abstract: The Women in Science and Engineering Leadership Institute (WISELI) at the University of Wisconsin-Madison, an NSF-funded ADVANCE Institutional Transformation project, employed the "discovery interviews" method to characterize the experiences of senior women faculty in science and engineering on campus. This method allowed WISELI to reach its aims of (1) gaining information from senior women that would inform the programs developed by WISELI, and (2) building relationships among the senior women and WISELI. The discovery interview process also had some uninteded consequences, including creation of an expectation of advocacy that exceeded the original intent of the project. This method was well-matched to the needs of WISELI as a change agent at the UW-Madison, and has contribted a great deal to its Institutional Transformation efforts, promarily by changing WISELI's perceptions of what leadership means to senior women faculty.

Smith, Ryan A. "Race, Gender, and Authority in the Workplace: Theory and Research." Annual Review of Sociology 28, no. 1 (2002): 509-42.
Available online
Notes: Article surveys the literature on authority, race and gender and points to future lines of research.
Abstract: "This chapter surveys sociological approaches to the study of job authority, including theoretical foundations, measurement, and emergence as an important dimension of social inequality. The focus here is mainly on studies of race and gender differences in the determinants of authority and the consequences of race and gender differences in authority for income. Despite significant advancements in the overall socioeconomic status of minorities and working women, race and gender remain important impediments to their attainment of authority. This pattern, which is consistent and robust in state-level, national, cross-national, and cross-temporal studies, is sustained net of an incumbent's human capital investments and structural location within and between several economic units. Following a review of the predominant explanations for gender and racial disparities in job authority is the conclusion that the most promising explanations for persistent racial and gender disparities in authority concern the racial and gender demography of the workplace and the tendency on the part of authority elites to reproduce themselves through both exclusionary and inclusionary processes. Suggestions for future research include additional delineation of these processes based on samples of multiple racial/ethnic groups of men and women and studies that synthesize quantitative and qualitative approaches to understanding the effect