WISELI BIBLIOGRAPHY
Organized by Subject
Updated June 20, 2007

Search Committee Training

Aguirre, Adalberto. "Women and Minority Faculty in the Academic Workplace: Recruitment, Retention, and Academic Culture." ASHE-ERIC Higher Education Reports 27, no. 6 (2000): 1-110.
Available online
Notes: Report provides a comprehensive review of existing research on climate/academic culture and the reruitment and retention of women and minorities in academia.
Abstract: "The recruitment, retention, and academic culture of women and minority faculty in the academic workplace is discussed. The status of women and minority faculty in academia, the organizational features of the academic workplace, the treatment of women and minority faculty in the academic workplace, barriers to professional socialization experienced by women and minority faculty, and why there is a need to study the academic workplace for women and minority faculty are considered. Summary observations and suggestions are provided."

Aguirre, Adalberto Jr. Women and Minority Faculty in the Academic Workplace: Recruitment, Retention, and Academic Culture. ASHE-ERIC Higher Education Report, Volume 27, Number 6. Jossey-Bass Higher and Adult Education SeriesSan Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass , 2000.
Available online
Abstract: In an attempt to address the need for substantive comparisons in the minority university faculty population, this monograph examines the relative differences in minority groups in the faculty population when the data permit comparisons. The report also examines research on the status of women faculty members. The discussion assembles a large volume of empirical research organized under the main thesis that academia for women and minority faculty is often experienced as a chilling and alienating environment. Women and minority faculty are expected to perform institutional roles that allow higher education institutions to pursue diversity on campus, but these roles are ignored in the faculty reward system, especially in the awarding of tenure. The chapters are: (1) "The Status of Women and Minority Faculty: Changing or Unchanging?"; (2) "The Academic Workplace"; (3) "The Academic Workplace for Women and Minority Faculty"; (4) "Issues Facing Women and Minority Faculty"; and (5) "Summary Observations and Suggestions." (Contains 314 references.) (SLD)

________. "Women and Minority Faculty in the Academic Workplace: Recruitment, Retention, and Academic Culture. ERIC Digest.".
Available online
Abstract: Institutions of higher education have attempted to diversity their faculty by recruiting women and minorities. However, recruitment has taken place without an understanding of the social forces that shape the professional socialization and workplace satisfaction of women and minority faculty. Conclusions drawn by the author about the plight of women and minority faculty in the academic workplace include: (1) The number of women and minority faculty in higher education has been increasing though they remain underrepresented in higher education relative to their numbers in the U.S. population; (2) The academic workplace has been described as chilly and alienating for women and minority faculty because they are ascribed a peripheral role in the academic workplace and are expected to perform roles that are in conflict with expectations; (3) Women and minority faculty are less satisfied than White male faculty with the workplace because they perceive themselves to be victims of salary inequities and a biased reward system; and (4) Women and minority faculty are also perceived as less competent than White male faculty. As a result, White male faculty often discredit feminist and minority research. (Contains 15 references.) (PW)

Alger, Jonathan R. "Coloring Between the (Legal) Lines: Faculty Diversity and the Law."Keeping Our Faculties: Addressing the Recruitment and Retention of Faculty of Color.
Available online
Notes: Advice on diversifying faculty
Abstract: This paper provides advice on ways to diversify faculty. It offers recommendations and procedures for hiring committees and argues that "faculty diversity should not be equated with mere racial and/or gender balancing."

Allen, Walter R. et al. "Outsiders Within: Race, Gender, and Faculty Status in U.S. Higher Education." In The Racial Crises in American Higher Education: Continuing Challenges for the Twenty-First Century. Revised edition. Ed., William A. Smith, Philip G. Altbach, and Kofi Lomotey, 189-220. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 2002.

Anonymous. "Students Provide Insights on Faculty Hiring Decisions." Academic Leader (June 2004): 4.
Available online
Notes: Including students in the facutly hiring process can help provide insight into a candidate's potential as a teacher and mentor.
Abstract: Focuses on the involvement of students in the interviewing process of faculty candidates. Factor in determining the success of a faculty member; Effect of students' opinion during the hiring of faculty members; Reaction of students to the teaching skills of a faculty.

Ashburn Nardo, Leslie, Corrine I. Voils, and Margo J. Monteith. "Implicit Associations As the Seeds of Intergroup Bias : How Easily Do They Take Root?" Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 81, no. 5 (Nov. 2001): 789-99.
Available online
Abstract: Three experiments provided evidence that intergroup bias occurs automatically under minimal conditions, using the Implicit Association Test (IAT; A. G. Greenwald, D. E. McGhee, & J. L. K. Schwartz, 1998). In Experiment 1, participants more readily paired in-group names with pleasant words and out-group names with unpleasant words, even when they were experienced only with the in-group and had no preconceptions about the out-group. Participants in Experiment 2 likewise showed an automatic bias favoring the in-group, even when in-group/out-group exemplars were completely unfamiliar and identifiable only with the use of a heuristic. In Experiment 3, participants displayed a pro-in-group IAT bias following a minimal group manipulation. Taken together, the results demonstrate the ease with which intergroup bias emerges even in unlikely conditions.

Associated Press. "UW Panel Suspects Bias in Hiring Faculty." Wisconsin State Journal (Madison, WI), 30 Oct. 1997, 2C.
Available online
Notes: Debate on gender discrimination in the university.
Abstract: Reports on UW panel's argument that "too many of the UW-Madison officials who make hiring decisions assume the only qualified candidates for faculty jobs are men..."

Bachrach, David J. "How Can You Increase Racial Diversity Among Faculty at Your Institution?" Academic Physician & Scientist (May 2002-June 2002).
Available online
Notes: Provides recommendations for recruiting and retaining diversity faculty
Abstract: Provides specific recommendations for increasing faculty diversity in academic medical centers that include encouraging underrepresented students to enter medicine, mentoring and fostering relationships with underrepresented students and faculty colleagues at other institutions,

Banaji, Mahzarin R., Max H. Bazerman, and Dolly Chugh. "How (Un)Ethical Are You?" Harvard Business Review 81, no. 12 (Dec. 2003): 56-64.
Available online
Abstract: Most people believe that they are ethical, unbiased decision makers, but the truth can be somewhat different. Psychological research routinely demonstrates that people hold "counterintentional, unconscious biases. The prevalence of these biases suggests that even the most well-intentioned person unwittingly allows unconscious thoughts and feelings to influence apparently objective decisions. These flawed judgments are ethically problematic and undermine managers' fundamental role - to recruit and retain superior talent, boost the performance of individuals and teams, and collaborate effectively with partners." These writers explore the sources of unintentional unethical decision making and suggest strategies that can help managers recognize unconscious biases and reduce their negative effects.

Barres, Ben. "Does Gender Matter?" Nature 442 (July 2006): 133-36.
Available online
Abstract: Ben Barres, a transgendered scientist, disputes the notion,propounded by Lawrence Summers, Steven Pinker, and Peter Lawrence, that innate gender differences explain gender inequities in the sciences.

Barres, Ben A. "Does Gender Matter?" Nature 442, no. 7099 (July 2006): 133-36.
Available online
Notes: As a transgendered person, Barres relies on his personal experiences as a women and as a man to provide evidence of discrimination against women scientists.
Abstract: "The suggestion that women are not advancing in science because of innate inability is being taken seriously by some high-profile academics. Barres explores the reasons why gender, racial and sexual orientation discrimination continues to be ignored or pseudo-scientifically "explained" by so-called experts."

Beck, M. M. and J. C. Swanson. "Value-Added Animal Agriculture: Inclusion of Race and Gender in the Professional Formula1." Journal of Animal Science 81, no. 11 (2003): 2895-903.
Available online
Abstract: The Morrill Act establishing the land grant university system created public higher education institutions and paved the way for women and racial minorities to access them. Today women are ~50% of the undergraduate population in animal science (AS) departments at the original land grant state universities, but racial minorities lag far behind, in part because the schools created under the 1890 legislation provided a diversion away from the state universities. Demographic trends from the U.S. Census and the Bureau of Labor Statistics indicate increasing positive growth in nonwhite workforce participation, with concurrent decreases in non-Hispanic male participation; men and women will be nearly equally represented by early in the 21st Century. In the faculties of AS departments, both women and minorities are seriously underrepresented; causative factors underlying this phenomenon are similar. Although, historically, adherence to role stereotypes and divisions of labor explain some of the under-representation, these assumptions do not hold across all economic classes. Other factors contributing to the scarcity of women and faculty of color in AS include assumptions and mechanisms of scientific research itself; the very neutrality and disinterestedness of researchers, inherent in the scientific method, prevent recognition that values and personal biases affect decisions of hiring selections and mentoring effectiveness. We explore the cultural factors that underlie these values and biases that are common not only to agriculture but also to science more broadly.

Bem, Sandra. "The Measurement of Psychological Androgyny." Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 42, no. 2 (1974): 155-62.
Available online
Notes: Article describes the Bem Sex-Role Inventory and its uses
Abstract: "This article describes the development of a new sex-role inventory that treats masculinity and feminity as two independent dimensions, thereby making it possible to characterize a person as masculine, feminine, or 'androgynous' as a function of the difference between his or her endorsement of masculine and feminine personality characteristics. Normative data are presented, as well as the results of various psychometic analyses. The major findings of conceptual interest are: (a) the dimensions of masculinity and femininity are empirically as well as logically independent; (b) the concept of psychologiical androgyny is a reliable one; and (c) highly sex-typed scores do not reflect a general tendency to respond in a socially desirable direction, but rather a specific tendency to describe oneself in accordance with sex-typed standards of desirable behavior for men and women."

Benokraitis, Nijole V. Subtle Sexism Current Practice and Prospects for Change. Thousand Oaks, Calif: Sage Publications, 1997.

Beoku-Betts, Josephine. "African Women Pursuing Graduate Studies in the Sciences: Racism, Gender Bias, and Third World Marginality." NWSA Journal 16, no. 1 (Spring 2004): 116-35.
Available online
Notes: Experiences of women scientists marginalized by race, gender, and third world origin.
Abstract: "This paper illuminates some of the factors that shape the educational goals and outcomes of African women who pursued graduate studies in scientific disciplines at western universities between the 1960s and 1990s. Based on a qualitative study of 15 African women scientists, almost all of whom are employed in academic institutions in their respective countries, I examine how racism, Third World location, and gender bias affected their graduate education experiences in scientific disciplines. The study also addresses the extent to which the women were aware of how these factors affected how they were perceived and mentored by professors, interacted with peer groups, as well as managed the demands of graduate school along with marriage and family relations. The study demonstrates why issues of diversity are salient to the discourse on ways to address the recruitment and retention of women in science.

Bernard, Pamela J. "When Seeking a Diverse Faculty, Watch Out for Legal Minefields." The Chronicle of Higher Education 53, no. 6 (Sept. 2006): B28.
Notes: Advice on how to avoid legal problems with hiring and recruiting efforts
Abstract: Address the following questions: "What lessons can we learn from the Michigan cases to support faculty hiring programs intended to increase diversity? Can a higher-education institution demonstrate that a diverse faculty is as essential to the ability of faculty members to challenge convention, discover, create, and educate students for a complex world as a diverse student body is to student learning and preparation? What legal minefields should institutions avoid as they seek to attract a diverse faculty?"

Bertrand, Marianne, Dolly Chugh, and Sendhil Mullainathan. "New Approaches to Discrimination: Implicit Discrimination." The American Economic Review 95, no. 2 (May 2005): 94-98.
Available online
Notes: Relies ofnpyschological evidence to suggest that implicit associations may unintentionally cause discrimination.
Abstract: "What drives people to discriminate? Economists focus on two main reasons: "taste-based" and "statistical" discrimination. Under both models, individuals consciously discriminate, either for a variety of personal reasons or because group membership provides information about a relevant characteristic, such as productivity. Motivated by a growing body of psychological evidence, the authors put forward a third interpretation: implicit discrimination. Sometimes, they argue, discrimination may be unintentional and outside of the discriminator's awareness. Most modern social psychologists believe that . . . people can think, feel, and behave in ways that oppose their explicitly expressed views, and even, explicitly known self interests. One of the most important recent research insights is that implicit attitudes can be measured."

Bertrand, Marianne and Sendhil Mullainathan, Are Emily and Brendan More Employable than Lakisha and Jamal?: A Field Experiment on Labor Market Discrimination, (unpublished).2002.
Notes: Job applicants with "white names" were more likely to receive callbacks for interviews than job applicants with African American names.
Abstract: We perform a field experiment to measure racial discrimination in the labor market. We answer help-wanted ads in Boston and Chicago newspapers by sending resumes. To manipulate perception of race, each resume is randomly assigned either a very African American sounding name or a very White sounding name. This manipulation produces a significant gap in the rate of callbacks for interviews. White names elicit about 50% more callbacks than African American names. We also investigate how improvements in credentials affect discrimination. For each employment ad, we send resumes of higher and lower quality. For Whites, the higher quality resumes elicit 30 percent more callbacks. For African Americans, however, the higher quality resumes do not elicit significantly more callbacks. The extent of discrimination is also remarkably uniform across occupations and industries. Similarly, Federal contractors (for whom affirmative action is better enforced) and employers who list "Equal Opportunity Employer" in their ad discriminate as much as other employers. In Chicago, we find that employers located in more African American neighborhoods discriminate less.

Bertrand, Marianne and Mullainathan Sendhil. "Are Emily and Greg More Employable Than Lakisha and Jamal? A Field Experiment on Labor Market Discrimination." American Economic Review 94, no. 4 (2004): 991-1013.
Available online
Notes: Provides evidence of discrimination on the basis of assumed race identified with the name of job applicants.
Abstract: "We study race in the labor market by sending fictitious resumes to help-wanted ads in Boston and Chicago newspapers. To manipulate perceived race, resumes are randomly assigned African-American- or White-sounding names. White names receive 50 percent more callbacks for interviews. Callbacks are also more responsive to resume quality for White names than for African-American ones. The racial gap is uniform across occupation, industry, and employer size. We also find little evidence that employers are inferring social class from the names. Differential treatment by race still appears to be prominent in the U. S. labor market."

Bielby, William T. "Minimizing Workplace Gender and Racial Bias." Contemporary Sociology 29, no. 1 (Jan. 2000): 120-129.
Available online
Notes: Article argues that bias must be reduced not by eliminating stereotypical thinking, but by lessening its impact. EEO accountability is proposed as a solution.
Abstract: Article summarizes finding from social science research about "factors that typically generate and sustain gender and racial bias in modern organizations" and discusses "the policy implications of this research for minimizing bias." Addresses sources of resistance to interventions for reducing bias and discusses "prospects for meaningful change."

Bielby, William T. and James N. Baron. "Men and Women at Work: Sex Segregation and Statistical Discrimination." The American Journal of Sociology 91, no. 4 (Jan. 1986): 759-99.
Available online
Notes: Statistical discrimination and gendered workplace sex segregation
Abstract: This article develops and tests hypotheses about the determinants of sex segregation in occupations employing both men and women, analyzing data on a diverse sample of California establishments. In the few instances in which men and women perform similar work roles, the jobs are typically done in distinct organizational settings, and when an enterprise employs both sexes in the same occupation, men and women are usually assigned different job titles. The findings are consistent with the theory of statistical discrimination, which posits that employers reserve some jobs for men and others for women. However, little evidence is found that employers' practices reflect efficient and rational responses to sex differences in skills and turnover costs. Alternative explanations for gender segregation within and among organizations are suggested and the research necessary to develop a more accurate account of the sexual division of labor in the workplace is outlined.

Biernat, Monica. "Toward a Broader View of Social Stereotyping." American Psychologist 58, no. 12 (Dec. 2003): 1019-27.
Available online
Notes: Influence of stereotypes on judgement and interaction with individuals
Abstract: Stereotyping effects are typically considered to be assimilative in nature: A member of a group stereotyped as having some attribute is judged to have more of that attribute than a member of some comparison group. This article highlights the fact that stereotyping effects can also occur in the direction of contrast - or even null effects - depending on the nature and form of the outcome being assessed (from the researcher's persepective, the dependent variable of interest). Relying on theory and research from the shifting standards model (M. Biernat, M. Manis, & T.F. Nelson, 1991), this review highlights the different ways in which and the factors that determine how stereotypes influence judgment and behavior toward individual group members.

Biernat, Monica and Kathleen Fuegen. "Shifting Standards and the Evaluation of Competence: Complexity in Gender-Based Judgment and Decision Making." Journal of Social Issues 57, no. 4 (Winter 2001): 707-24.
Available online
Notes: Stereotypes establish lower minimum standards and higher confirmatory standards for women than for men.
Abstract: Gender stereotypes regarding task competence may lead perceivers to set different standards for diagnosing competence in women versus men. Specifically, stereotypes may prompt lower minimum standards (or initial screening criteria) but higher confirmatory standards for women than men (Biernat & Kobrynowicz, 1997). In two studies simulating hiring decisions, predictions were that women would be (1) more likely than men to make a short list for a job but (2) less likely than men to be hired for the same job. Results were generally consistent with predictions only among female participants (Studies 1 and 2), among those exposed to a female experimenter (Study 1), and among those held accountable for their decisions (Study 2). The role of motivational factors in the setting of standards is discussed.

Biernat, Monica and Diane Kobrynowicz. "Gender- and Race-Based Standards of Competence: Lower Minimum Standards but Higher Ability Standards for Devalued Groups." Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 72, no. 3 (1997): 544-57.
Available online
Notes: Studies showed stereotypes can lead to setting lower minimum standards for competence allowing for the inclusion of women and minorities AND then subjecting them to higher ability standards with regard to selection or evaluation.
Abstract: Stereotypes may influence judgment via assimilation, such that individual group members are evaluated consistently with stereotypes, or via contrast, such that targets are displaced from the overall group expectation. Two models of judgment - the shifting standards model and status characteristics theory - provide some insight into predicting and interpreting these apparently contradictory efforts. In 2 studies involving a simulated applicant-evaluation setting, we predicted and found that participants set lower minimum-competency standards, but higher ability standards, for female than for male and for Black than for White applicants. Thus, although it may be easier for low- than high-status group members to meet (low) standards, these same people must work harder to prove that their performance is ability-based.

Biernat, Monica and Jennifer E. Ma. "Stereotypes and the Confirmability of Trait Concepts." Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 31, no. 4 (2005): 483-95.
Available online
Notes: Evaluators require less evidence is required to confirm traits that are stereotypical of a group and more evidence to disconfirm such traits when they are judging members of that group -- but only if the evaluators are not also members of the same group.
Abstract: This study examines the process of how we assign traits or dispositions to individuals. The authors argue that "perceivers require that certain standards of evidence must be met before they decide that a target individual posseses a given trait." They hypothesize "that evidentiary standards differ depending on the stereotypicality of the attributes in question and on the social group membership(s) of the target person being evaluated." Specifically, traits that are stereotypic of a group were expected to require lower evidentiary standards when assessing members of that group. Similarly the authors hypotheses that more evidence will be required to disconform stereotypical traits. Two studies one focussing on race and one on sex were conducted to test these hypotheses. Both showed that "trait stereotypicality was associated with fewer behaviors required to confirm and more to disconfirm" but only when judgements were made on outgroup targets (ie. when Black evaluators judged White behaviors/traits or when White evaluators judged Black behaviors/traits).

Biernat, Monica and Melvin Manis. "Shifting Standards and Stereotype-Based Judgements." Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 66, no. 1 (1994): 5-20.
Available online
Notes: Shows the role stereotypes can play in evaluating others.
Abstract: "Four studies tested a model of stereotype-based shifts in judgment standards developed by M. Biernat, M. Manis, and T. E. Nelson (1991). The model suggests that subjective judgments of target persons from different social groups may fail to reveal the stereotyped expectations of judges, because they invite the use of different evaluative standards; more "objective" or common rule indicators reduce such standard shifts. The stereotypes that men are more competent than women, women are more verbally able than men, Whites are more verbally able than Blacks, and Blacks are more athletic than Whites were successfully used to demonstrate the shifting standards phenomenon. Several individual-difference measures were also effective in predicting differential susceptibility to standard shifts, and direct evidence was provided that differing comparison standards account for substantial differences in target ratings."

Biernat, Monica, Melvin Manis, and Thomas E Nelson. "Stereotypes and Standards of Judgment." Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 60, no. 4 (1991): 485-99.
Available online
Notes: Discusses the role of stereotypes in judging height, weight, income.
Abstract: "People routinely adjust their subjective judgment standards as they evaluate members of stereotyped social groups. Such shifts are less likely to occur, however, when judgments are made on stable, "objective" response scales. In 3 studies, subjects judged a series of targets with respect to a number of gender-relevant attributes (e.g. height, weight, and income), using either subjective (Likert-type) or objective response scales (e.g., inches, pounds, and dollars). Objective judgments were consistently influenced by sex stereotypes; subjective judgments were not."

Biernat, Monica and Theresa K Vescio. "She Swings, She Hits, She's Great, She's Benched: Implications of Gender-Based Shifting Standards for Judgment and Behavior." Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 28, no. 1 (2002): 66 .
Available online
Abstract: The implications of the shifting standards model for understanding behavior toward stereotyped groups were examined in two studies on gender and athleticism. Participants played the role of co-ed softball team managers, who made team selections, position assignments, and judgments about a series of male and female players.

Blair, Irene V. "The Malleability of Automatic Stereotypes and Prejudice." Personality and Social Psychology Review 6, no. 3 (2002): 242-61.
Available online
Notes: Automatic stereotypes and prejudices can be moderated by a variety of factors.
Abstract: "The present article reviews evidence for the malleability of automatic stereotypes and prejudice. In contrast to assumptions that such responses are fixed and inescapable, it is shown that automatic stereotypes and prejudice are influenced by, (a) self- and social motives, (b) specific strategies, (c) the perceiver's focus of attention, and (d) the configuration of stimulus cues. In addition, group members' individual characteristics are shown to influence the extent to which (global) stereotypes and prejudice are automatically activated. This evidence has significant implications for conceptions of automaticity, models of stereotyping and prejudice, and attitude representation. The review concludes with the description of an initial model of early social information processing."

Blair, Irene V. and Mahzarin R. Banaji. "Automatic and Controlled Processes in Stereotype Priming." Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 70, no. 6: 1142-63.
Available online
Notes: Stereotype priming and the moderation of gender stereotypes
Abstract: The experiments in this article were conducted to observe the automatic activation of gender stereotypes and to assess theoretically specified conditions under which such stereotype priming may be moderated. Across 4 experiments, 3 patterns of data were observed: (a) evidence of stereotype priming under baseline conditions of intention and high cognitive constraints, (b) significant reduction of stereotype priming when a counterstereotype intention was formed even though cognitive constraints were high, and (c) complete reversal of stereotype priming when a counterstereotype intention was formed and cognitive constraints were low. These data support proposals that stereotypes may be automatically activated as well as proposals that perceivers can control and even eliminate such effects.

Blair, Irene V., Jennifer E. Ma, and Alison P. Lenton. "Imagining Stereotypes Away: The Moderation of Implicit Stereotypes Through Mental Imagery." Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 81, no. 5 (2001): 828-41.
Available online
Notes: Using the IAT, authors show that implicit stereotypes can be controlled by mental imagery
Abstract: Research on implicit stereotypes has raised important questions about an individual's ability to moderate and control stereotypic responses. With few strategies shown to be effective in moderating implicit effects, the present research investigates a new strategy based on focused mental imagery. Across 5 experiments, participants who engaged in counterstereotypic mental imagery produced substantially weaker implicit stereotypes compared with participants who engaged in neutral, stereotypic, or no mental imagery. This reduction was demonstrated with a variety of measures, eliminating explanations based on response suppression or shifts in response criterion. Instead, the results suggest that implicit stereotypes are malleable, and that controlled processes, such as mental imagery, may influence the stereotyping process at its early as well as later stages.

________. "Imagining Stereotypes Away : The Moderation of Implicit Stereotypes Through Mental Imagery." Journal of Personality and Social Psychology: 828-41.
Available online
Abstract: Research on implicit stereotypes has raised important questions about an individual's ability to moderate and control stereotypic responses. With few strategies shown to be effective in moderating implicit effects, the present research investigates a new strategy based on focused mental imagery. Across 5 experiments, participants who engaged in counterstereotypic mental imagery produced substantially weaker implicit stereotypes compared with participants who engaged in neutral, stereotypic, or no mental imagery. This reduction was demonstrated with a variety of measures, eliminating explanations based on response suppression or shifts in response criterion. Instead, the results suggest that implicit stereotypes are malleable, and that controlled processes, such as mental imagery, may influence the stereotyping process at its early as well as later stages.

Bollinger, Lee C. "Why Diversity Matters." The Chronical of Higher Education 53, no. 39 (June 2007): B20.
Notes: Diversity essential to enable students and future leaders to "imagine, understand, and collaborate" with diverse people in an increasingly global society.
Abstract: Responds to recent attacks on affirmative action by focussing on the positive educational aspects of interacting with a diverse group of people in order to function and excel in an increasingly global world.

Bornmann, Lutz and Hans-Dieter Daniel. "Reliability, Fairness and Predictive Validity of Committee Peer Review." B.I.F. Futura 13, no. 1 (2004): 7-19.
Available online
Notes: Article investigates fairness and validity of a foundation's funding application review process; finds some evidence of gender bias.
Abstract: "In science, peer review is the oldest and best established method of assessing manuscripts, applications for research fellowships and research grants. However, the fairness of peer review, its reliability and whether it achieves its aim to select the best science and scientists has often been questioned. Here we present the first comprehensive study on committee peer review for the selection of doctoral (Ph.D.) and post-doctoral research fellowships. We analysed the selection process of the Boehringer Ingelheim Funds, a foundation for the promotion of basic research in biomedicine, with regard to its reliability, fairness and predictive validity -- the three quality criteria for professional evaluations. We analysed a total of 2,697 applications, 1,954 for doctoral and 743 for post-doctoral fellowships. In 76% of the cases, the decision whether to award a scholarship or not was characterized by agreement between reviewers. Similar figures for reliability were reported for the grant selection processes of other major funding agencies. With regard to fairness, we analysed whether potential sources of bias, i.e. gender, nationality, discipline and institutional affiliation could have influenced the decisions. For post-doctoral fellowships, no statistically significant influence of any of these variables could be observed. In applications for a doctoral fellowship, evidence of a gender, discipline and institutional bias, but not of a nationality bias, was found. We therefore present some proposals for optimizing committee peer review."

Bowen, Chieh-Chen, Janet K. Swim, and Rick R. Jacobs. "Evaluating Gender Biases on Actual Job Performance of Real People: A Meta-Analysis." Journal of Applied Social Psychology 30, no. 10 (2000): 2194-215.
Notes: Gender bias found in evaluation of job performance in work settings.
Abstract: This study examined gender bias on job performance in work settings where confounding variables (e.g., organizational level, experience, education) were cautiously taken into consideration to ensure fair comparisons. Although previous meta-analyses examined gender biases on evaluations, findings in tightly controlled laboratory environments may differ from those in highly complicated field studies. We found little evidence of overall gender bias in performance appraisals in nonconfounded field studies. However, there were significant pro-male biases when only men served as raters. Gender relevant meanings associated with the measures of performance also influences bias -- masculine measures produced pro-male biases and feminine measures produced pro-female biases. The authors also note that performance evaluations do no necessarily correlate with job advancement and that even when no bias in evaluating performance was present and even when women's performance was more highly rated than mens, men were still more likely to get promoted and to get pay raises, and less likely to be dismissed.

Brendl, C. Miguel, Arthur B. Markman, and Claude Messner. "How Do Indirect Measures of Evaluation Work? Evaluating the Inference of Prejudice in the Implicit Association Test." Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 81, no. 5 (Nov. 2001): 760-773.
Available online
Abstract: There has been significant interest in indirect measures of attitudes like the Implicit Association Test (IAT), presumably because of the possibility of uncovering implicit prejudices. The authors derived a set of qualitative predictions for people's performance in the IAT on the basis of random walk models. These were supported in 3 experiments comparing clearly positive or negative categories to nonwords. They also provided evidence that participants shift their response criterion when doing the IAT. Because of these criterion shifts, a response pattern in the IAT can have multiple causes. Thus, it is not possible to infer a single cause (such as prejudice) from IAT results. A surprising additional result was that nonwords were treated as though they were evaluated more negatively than obviously negative items like insects, suggesting that low familiarity items may generate the pattern of data previously interpreted as evidence for implicit prejudice.

Brouns, Margo. "The Gendered Nature of Assessment Procedures in Scientific Research Funding: The Dutch Case." Higher Education in Europe 25, no. 2 (2000): 193-99.
Notes: Study of gender bias in assessment procedures used by two major institutions for scientific grants in the Netherlands: The Organization for Scientific Research and the Royal Dutch Academy for the Sciences.
Abstract: Inspired in part by the Wenneras and Wold study of gender bias in the assessment of applicants for the Swedish Medical Research Council's fellowships, "this article discussed the results of a study on gender bias in assessment procedures in the two major institutions for scientific grants in the Netherlands: the Dutch Organization for Scientific Research (NOW) and the Royal Dutch Academy for the Sciences (KNOW). The study concentrated on a qualitative sample of one of the prestigious grants. A total of 128 files were analyzed on the basis of a correlation of characteristics of the applicant (sex, age, and scientific productivity), assessment by the external advisors (peer review), and the decision of NOW. The analysis indicated that women applicants were evaluated differently from male applicants. However, women were not discriminated against in all disciplines. On the contrary, is some disciplines they received a bonus. On of the major conclusions is that gender matters, but in different ways within the different disciplines." Ironically, women were favored in fields with a low proportion of women (eg. physics) and were discriminated against in fields with a better representation of women (eg. humanities and biology).

Brown, Ryan P and Elizabeth C Pinel. "Stigma on My Mind: Individual Differences in the Experience of Stereotype Threat." Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 39, no. 6 (2003): 626-33.
Available online
Abstract: Stereotyped individuals vary in how chronically self-conscious they are of their stigmatized status, which [Pinel, 1999] has dubbed stigma consciousness. The current study investigated whether individual differences in stigma consciousness moderate the impact of gender stereotypes on the math performance of women. Results indicated that, under conditions designed to evoke stereotype threat ([Steele, 1997]), women high in stigma consciousness scored worse than women low in stigma consciousness on a math test. In the control (low threat) condition, stigma consciousness was unrelated to test performance. Possible mechanisms underlying this moderation are discussed. -

Butler, Doré and Florence L. Geis. "Nonverbal Affect Responses to Male and Female Leaders: Implications for Leadership Evaluations." Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 58 (1990): 48-59.
Available online
Notes: Negative facial reactions to assertive women in a group problem solving session; women perceived negatively when they show leadership.
Abstract: Tests the hypothesis that female leaders would elicit more negative nonverbal affect responses from other group members than male leaders offering the same initiatives. Male and female subjects participated in 4-person discussions in which male or female confederates assumed leadership. During the discussion subjects' nonverbal affect responses to the confederates were coded from behind one-way mirrors. Female leaders received more negative affect responses and fewer positive responses than men offering the same suggestions and arguments. Female leaders received more negative than positive responses, in contrast to men, who received at least as many positive as negative responses. The data demonstrate a concrete social mechanism known to cause devaluation of leadership, and thus support a more social interpretation of female leadership evaluations, in contrast to previous interpretations based on private perceptual bias.

Carli, Linda L. "Gender and Social Influence." Journal of Social Issues 57, no. 4 (Winter 2001): 725-41.
Available online
Notes: Discusses research that showing that men are generally more influential than women and presents strategies for enhancing women's effectiveness as leaders.
Abstract: This article explores strategies for enhancing women's effectiveness as leaders by first recognizing that leadership itself is gendered and is enacted within a gendered context, two themes that recur throughout this issue. These contexts exist along a continuum ranging from male-dominated, hierarchical, performance-oriented, power-expressive and thus masculinized contexts at one extreme to transformational contexts that stress the empowerment of followers at the other pole. Each context suggests different strategies for making women leaders effective, emphasizing women-specific recommendations in masculinized contexts that focus on status enhancement and the legitimation of women leaders in contrast to innovative contexts with broader task goals that prove more congenial for women, as well as men, leaders.

Carli, Linda L. and Alice H. Eagly. "Gender, Hierarchy, and Leadership: An Introduction." Journal of Social Issues 57 (2001): 629-36.
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Notes: Introduction to Special Issue on Gender and Leadership
Abstract: Although women's status has improved remarkably in the 20th century, in many societies women continue to lack access to power and leadership compared with men. This issue reviews research and theory concerning women's leadership. The articles included in the issue provide evidence of bias in the evaluation of women, discuss effects of gender stereotypes on women's influence and leadership behaviors, and evaluate strategies for change. This introductory article provides a brief summary of changes in women's status and power in employment and education and the absence of change at the upper echelons of power in organizations. Also included is an outline of the contributions of the other articles in the issue.

Carli, Linda L., Suzanne J. LaFleur, and Christopher C. Loeber. "Nonverbal Behavior, Gender, and Influence." Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 68, no. 6 (June 1995): 1030-1041.
Available online
Notes: Likeableness and competence were both predictive of influence, but likeableness was a more important determinant of influence for female than male speakers when the audience was male.
Abstract: Participants viewed a videotape of either a male or female confederate delivering a persuasive message using a high task, social, submissive, or dominant nonverbal style. Participants were influenced more after viewing the social and task styles than the dominant or submissive styles. Participants liked task and social confederates more than dominant confederates and considered submissive confederates to be less competent than the other 3 styles. Although both likableness and competence were predictive of influence, likableness was a more important determinant of influence for female than male speakers when the audience was male. Consequently, with a male audience, women exhibiting a task style were less influential and likable than men exhibiting that style. Men were not more influential than women when displaying dominance.

Carli, Linda R. "Gender, Interpersonal Power, and Social Influence." Journal of Social Issues 55, no. 1 (Spring 1999): 81-99.
Available online
Notes: Women have greater difficulty exerting influence than do men, particularly when they attempt to use influence that conveys competence and authority.
Abstract: This article reviews research on gender differences in power and their effect on social influence. Evidence indicates that men generally possess higher levels of expert and legitimate power than women do and that women possess higher levels of referent power than men do. These differences are reflected, to some extent, in the influence strategies used by men and women and, more clearly, in gender differences in social influence. Women generally have greater difficulty exerting influence than men do, particularly when they use influence that conveys competence and authority. These findings indicate that gender differences in influence are mediated by gender differences in power.

Cassuto, Leonard. "Evaluation and the Culture of Secrecy." The Chronicle of Higher Education 51, no. 46 (July 2005): B.16.
Available online
Abstract: Cassuto comments on confidentiality in higher education-related evaluation and cogently makes an argument for openness rather than confidentiality in recommendation letters, peer review, and a number of other areas.

Catalyst. The Bottom Line: Connecting Corporate Performance and Gender Diversity - Executive Summary, Report, News Releases, & other materialsNew York: Catalyst, 2004.
Available online
Abstract: Catalyst explores the link between gender diversity on top management teams and U.S. corporate financial performance.

Christman, Dana E. "Women Faculty in Higher Education: Impeded by Academe." Advancing Women in Leadership, no. 15 (Winter 2003).
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Notes: Review articles discusses structural and cultural obstacles to womens' full participation in academia and discusses proposed remedies.
Abstract: "Set up through the beneficences of patriarchy, the academy tends to reflect the values of the same. Women's experiences are not part of the dominant paradigm and are, at best, frequently misunderstood and, at worst, devalued and discounted."

Chugh, Dolly. "Societal and Managerial Implications of Implicit Social Cognition: Why Milliseconds Matter." Social Justice Research 17, no. 2 (2004): 203-22.
Available online
Notes: Uses IAT results to argue that implicit bias can influence managers efforts to process information, interact with other, and make decisions.
Abstract: "This article argues for the vulnerability of managerial work to unintended forms of racial and other bias. Recent insights into'implicit social cognition' are summarized, highlighting the prevalence of those mental processes that are relatively unconscious and automatic, and employed in understanding the self and others. Evidence from a response-time measure of implicit bias, the Implicit Association Test, ('IAT'; Greenwald, McGhee, and Schwartz, 1998) illustrates this phenomenon. Recent work on the predictive validity of the IAT demonstrates that social cognitive pitfalls threaten a) managers' explicit commitments to egalitarianism and meritocracy and b) managers' performance in their three primary roles of processing information, interacting with others, and making decisions (Mintzberg, 1973). Implicit bias influences managerial behavior in unexpected ways, and this influence is heightened in the messy, pressured, and distracting environments in which managers operate.

Clayton, Susan D and Faye J Crosby. Justice, Gender, and Affirmative Action. Critical Perspectives on Women and Gender. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1992.

Clegg, Roger. "When Faculty Hiring Is Blatantly Illegal." The Chronicle of Higher Education 29, no. 10 (Nov. 2002): B.20.
Available online
Notes: Relying on racial preferences in hiring is illegal
Abstract: Clegg discusses when affirmative action in hiring professors is illegal. Colleges may assume that racial and ethnic preferences in faculty hiring will stand or fall within the legality of such preferences in student admissions, but that is not true.

Cole, Jonathan R. and Burton Singer. "A Theory of Limited Difference: Explaining the Productivity Puzzle in Science."The Outer Circle: Women in the Scientific Community Harriet Zuckerman, Jonathan R. Cole, and John T. Bruer, 277-310, 319-23, 338-40. New York: Norton, 1991.
Notes: Explains different publication rates for men and women scientists.
Abstract: Uses Theory of Limited Difference to explain why men published twice as many scientific papers as women and why this difference increases over the course of careers.

Correll, Shelley J. "Gender and the Career Choice Process: The Role of Biased Self-Assessments." The American Journal of Sociology 106, no. 6 (2001): 1691-730.
Available online
Notes: Cultural beliefs about gender and mathematical ability influence individuals' assessments of their own mathematical competence and leads to gender differences in decisions to pursue careers in STEM fields.
Abstract: This article develops a supply-side mechanism about how cultural beliefs about gender differentially influence the early career-relevant decisions of men and women. Cultural beliefs about gender are argued to bias individuals' perceptions of their competence at various career-relevant tasks, controlling for actual ability. To the extent that individuals then act on gender-differentiated perceptions when making career decisions, cultural beliefs about gender channel men and women in substantially different career directions. The hypotheses are evaluated by considering how gendered beliefs about mathematics impact individuals' assessments of their own mathematical competence, which, in turn, leads to gender differences in decisions to persist on a path toward a career in science, math, or engineering.

Cox, Taylor H. and Stacy Blake. "Managing Cultural Diversity: Implications for Organizational Competitiveness." Academy of Management Executive 5, no. 3 (Aug. 1991): 45-56.
Available online
Abstract: Globalization and increasing ethnic and gender diversity, two current business trends, are turning managers' attention to the management of cultural differences. Organizations' ability to attract, retain, and motivate people from diverse cultural backgrounds may lead to competitive advantages in cost structures. Furthermore, by capitalizing on the potential benefits of cultural diversity in work groups, organizations may gain a competitive advantage in creativity, problem solving, and flexible adaptation to change. Steps that organizations can take toward accomplishing this include: 1. enlisting top management's support and genuine commitment, 2. managing and valuing diversity training, 3. collecting information pertaining to diversity-related issues, and 4. conducting analyses of change of culture and human resource management systems.

Crocker, J. and B. Major. "Social Stigma and Self-Esteem: The Self-Protective Properties of Stigma." Psychological Review 96 (1989): 608-30.
Notes: Social stigmas applied to a group may protect an individuals self-concept
Abstract: Argues that membership in a stigmatized group may preserve an individuals self-esteem because the individual may attribute negative feedback to prejudice against the group, may compare themselves to the members of the ingroup, rather than to more advantaged outgroup, may devalue measures on which their group performs poorly and value characteristics on which their group performs well.

Cuddy, Amy J. C., Susan T. Fiske, and Peter Glick. "When Professionals Become Mothers, Warmth Doesn't Cut the Ice." Journal of Social Issues 60, no. 4 (2004): 701-18.
Available online
Notes: Addresses bias against working mothers in hiring and in the work environment.
Abstract: Working moms risk being reduced to one of two subtypes: homemakers-viewed as warm but incompetent, or female professionals-characterized as competent but cold. The current study ( = 122 college students) presents four important findings. First, when working women become mothers, they trade perceived competence for perceived warmth. Second, working men don't make this trade; when they become fathers, they gain perceived warmth and maintain perceived competence. Third, people report less interest in hiring, promoting, and educating working moms relative to working dads and childless employees. Finally, competence ratings predict interest in hiring, promoting, and educating workers. Thus, working moms' gain in perceived warmth does not help them, but their loss in perceived competence does hurt them. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cunningham, William A., John B. Nezlek, and Mahzarin R. Banaji. "Implicit and Explicit Ethnocentrism: Revisiting the Ideologies of Prejudice." Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 30, no. 10 (2004): 1332-46.
Available online
Notes: Examines relationships between explicit and implicit attitudes; between prejudice to one group and prejudice to others; and between prejudice and ideology or rigid thinking.
Abstract: "Two studies investigated relationships among individual differences in implicit and explicit prejudice, right-wing ideology, and rigidity in thinking. The first study examined these relationships focusing on White Americans' prejudice toward Black Americans. The second study provided the first test of implicit ethnocentrism and its relationship to explicit ethnocentrism by studying the relationship between attitudes toward five social groups." Findings replicates previous work showing that "those who hold [explicit] negative attitudes towards one disadvantaged group also tend to hold negative attitudes toward other disadvantaged groups" and show that such "ethnocentrism" also applies to implicit attitudes. Results also suggest, contrary to much previous work, that there may be correlations between explicit and implicit attitudes and that these correlations "can be highly variable depending on the particular attitude being measured, the degree to which the attitude is elaborated, motivation to control prejudiced reactions, and the degree to which societal norms allow for the expression of prejudice toward the group. The authors conclude by suggesting that developing explicit egalitarian attitudes may, over time, influence the valence and intensity of implicit ones or, conversely, that implicit associations may help shape the content of more conscious, explicit attitudes.

Dasgupta, Nilanjana and Anthony G. Greenwald. "On the Malleability of Automatic Attitudes: Combating Automatic Prejudice With Images of Admired and Disliked Individuals." Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 81, no. 5 (2001): 800-815.
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Abstract: Two experiments examined whether exposure to pictures of admired and disliked exemplars can reduce automatic preference for White over Black Americans and younger over older people. In Experiment 1, participants were exposed to either admired Black and disliked White individuals, disliked Black and admired White individuals, or nonracial exemplars.

Dasgupta, Nilanjana and Luis M. Rivera. "From Automatic Antigay Prejudice to Behavior: The Moderating Role of Conscious Beliefs About Gender and Behavioral Control." Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 91, no. 2 (Aug. 2006): 268-80.
Available online
Notes: Conscious beliefs and gender and/or behavioral control can eliminate behavioral bias.
Abstract: Two experiments tested whether the relation between automatic prejudice and discriminatory behavior is moderated by 2 conscious processes: conscious egalitarian beliefs and behavioral control. The authors predicted that, when both conscious processes are deactivated, automatic prejudice would elicit discriminatory behavior. When either of the 2 processes is activated, behavioral bias would be eliminated. The authors assessed participants' automatic attitudes toward gay men, conscious beliefs about gender, behavioral control, and interactions with gay confederates. In Experiment 1, men's beliefs about gender were heterogeneous, whereas women's beliefs were mostly egalitarian; men's responses supported the predictions, but women's responses did not. In Experiment 2, the authors recruited a sample with greater diversity in gender-related beliefs. Results showed that, for both sexes, automatic prejudice produced biased behavior in the absence of conscious egalitarian beliefs and behavioral control. The presence of either conscious process eliminated behavioral bias.

Davies, Paul G., Steven J. Spencer, and Claude M. Steele. "Clearing the Air: Identity Safety Moderates the Effects of Stereotype Threat on Women's Leadership Aspirations." Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 88, no. 2 (2005): 276-87.
Available online
Notes: Stereotype threat can influence both performance and aspirations - and creating "identity-safe" environments can reduce the influence of sterotype threat.
Abstract: Considerable research documents how stereotype threat undermines performance, but little research has been conducted on how stereotype threat influences aspirations. This study examines the effect of stereotype threat on women's aspirations for leadership. "Exposing participants to gender-stereotypic TV commercials designed to elicit the female stereotype, the present research explored whether vulnerability to stereotype threat could persuade women to avoid leadership roles in favor of nonthreatening subordinate roles. Study 1 confirmed that exposure to the stereotypic commercials undermined women's aspirations on a subsequent leadership task. Study 2 established that varying the identity safety of the leadership task moderated whether activation of the female stereotype mediated the effect of the commercials on women's aspirations. Creating an identity-safe environment eliminated vulnerability to stereotype threat despite exposure to threatening situational cues that primed stigmatized social identities and their corresponding stereotypes."

Deaux, Kay and Tim Emswiller. "Explanations of Successful Performance on Sex-Linked Tasks: What Is Skill for the Male Is Luck for the Female." Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 29, no. 1 (1974): 80-85.
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Notes: Differential attribution of success between genders. Success for men attributed to ability/effort; success for women attributed to luck.

Deaux, Kay and Elizabeth Farris. "Attributing Causes for One's Own Performance: The Effects of Sex, Norms, and Outcome." Journal of Research in Personality 11 (1977): 59-72.
Notes: Males claim greater ability than females and evaluate their performance more favorably. Females are more likely to attribute good results to luck.
Abstract: "Two experiments were conducted to determine the effect of sex of subject, stated sex linkage of task, and task outcome on causal attributions of an actor's performance. Results from both studies showed that: (1) males evaluate their performance more favorably than do females, despite equivalent objective scores; (2) males claim greater ability than do females following task performance; and (3) females are more prone to use luck to explain performance. The evidence also suggests that the difference between males and females in performance evaluation and self-attribution occurs most strongly in response to failure and on masculine tasks. The results are interpreted in terms of a general expectancy model."

Devine, Patricia, E. Ashby Plant, and et.al. "The Regulation of Explicit and Implicit Race Bias: The Role of Motivations to Respond Without Prejudice." Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 82 (2002): 835-48.
Available online
Notes: Though external motivation reduced explicit race bias, internal motivation reduced implicit race bias. Authors suggest that external motivation may be an important first step, but that creating internal motivation is essential for sustaining efforts to respond without prejudice.
Abstract: "Three studies examined the moderating role of motivations to respond without prejudice (e.g., internal and external) in expressions of explicit and implicit race bias. In all studies, participants reported their explicit attitudes toward Blacks. Implicit measures consisted of a sequential priming task (Study 1) and the Implicit Association Test (Studies 2 and 3). Study 3 used a cognitive busyness manipulation to preclude effects of controlled processing on implicit responses. In each study, explicit race bias was moderated by internal motivation to respond without prejudice, whereas implicit race bias was moderated by the interaction of internal and external motivation to respond without prejudice. Specifically, high internal, low external participants exhibited lower levels of implicit race bias than did all other participants. Implications for the development of effective self-regulation of race bias are discussed."

Devine, Patricia G. "Implicit Prejudice and Stereotyping : How Automatic Are They? Introduction to the Special Section." Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 81, no. 5 (Nov. 2001): 757-59.
Available online
Abstract: This special issue of the Journal of Personality and Social Psychology: Attitudes and Social Cognition addresses issues of the measurement and the malleability of implicit prejudice and stereotypes. The findings raise fundamental questions about the assumptions underlying the assessment of implicit prejudice, particularly with regard to the widely used Implicit Association Test (A. Greenwald, D. McGhee, & J. Schwartz, 1998) and the assumption of extant models of prejudice and stereotyping that implicit biases are automatically and invariantly activated when perceivers come in contact with members of stigmatized groups. Several of the articles show that contextual manipulations produce reductions in implicit manifestations of prejudice and stereotyping. The articles in this issue, in challenging conventional wisdom, are thought provoking and should be generative in the field's ongoing efforts to understand the role of implicit (and explicit) processes involved in prejudice and stereotyping.

Devine, Patricia G. et al. "Prejudice With and Without Compunction." Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 60, no. 6 (1991): 817-30.
Available online
Notes: For low and moderately predjudiced subjects, awareness of discrepancies between how they should respond and how they would respond, created feelings of discomfort, guilt and self-critism, led to internalization of non-prejudiced standards.
Abstract: Subjects reported their standards for how they should respond and how they would respond in contact situations with Black people (Study 1) and homosexual men (Study 2). Interest centered on the affective consequences associated with should-would discrepancies. Low and moderately prejudiced subjects with discrepancies between should-would responses reacted with feelings of global discomfort and with more specific feelings of compunction (guilt and self-criticism). High prejudiced subjects with discrepancies experienced only global discomfort. Study 3 data indicated that low prejudiced subjects internalized their nonprejudiced standards and felt obligated to respond consistently with them. High prejudiced subjects' personal standards were less well internalized and appeared to be derived from their perceptions of society's standards, which subjects indicated were mixed (i.e., contained both egalitarian and discriminatory components). Implications for prejudice reduction and contemporary models of prejudice are discussed.

Dingerson, Michael R., John A. Rodman, and John F. Wade. "Procedures and Costs for Hiring Academic Administrators." Journal of Higher Education 53, no. 1 (Jan. 1982-Feb. 1982): 63-74.
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Notes: Federal regulations requiring universities to expend 'extra efforts' to hire underrepresented groups (women and ethnic minorities) appear to have increased the cost associated with hiring academic administrators but has not increased the proportion of underrepresented groups hired.
Abstract: "Hiring procedures and costs were investigated as they relate to the filling of academic administrative positions advertised nationally since the 1972 Affirmative Action legislation. Of concern was the hiring of internal versus external and minority versus white male candidates. Substantial cost increases have resulted in little change in the sex and ethnic makeup of academic administrators."

Dovidio, John F. "On the Nature of Contemporary Prejudice: The Third Wave." Journal of Social Issues 57, no. 4: 829-49.
Available online
Notes: Unconscious biases can significantly influence race relations
Abstract: "This article examines how social and historical developments have influenced the intellectual climate surrounding the study of prejudice and illustrates how these advances are reflected in the study of one type of racial bias, aversive racism. Three waves of research are identified. In the first wave, prejudice was assumed to reflect psychopathology. In the second, it was viewed as rooted in normal processes. The third wave emphasizes the multidimensional aspect of prejudice and takes advantage of new technologies to study processes that were earlier hypothesized but not directly measurable. Research on aversive racism is presented to demonstrate the transition of research across the second and third waves and to show how unconscious biases can significantly influence race relations."

Dovidio, John F. et al. "The Relationship of Social Power to Visual Displays of Dominance Between Men and Women." Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 54, no. 2 (1988): 233-42.
Available online
Notes: Gaze and deference
Abstract: Using undergraduate students in mixed-sex dyads, this study showed that both men and women both showed "visual dominance" (looking at partner more while speaking than while listening) when they hade greater expert knowledge or power, both men and women showed deference (looking more when listening than when speaking) when they had less knowledge or power, but that when no differential in knowledge or power existed, men showed dominance while women showed deference.

Dovidio, John F. et al. "Why Can't We Just Get Along? Interpersonal Biases and Interracial Distrust.: Why Can't We Just Get Along? Interpersonal Biases and Interracial Distrust." Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology 8, no. 2 (2002): 88, -102.
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Notes: Studies show how subtle, unconscious racial biases Whites hold about Blacks and Black's perceptions of these biases can negatively influence interaction and effectiveness of interracial groups.
Abstract: The authors review a series of studies that illustrate how one form of contemporary racial bias of Whites, aversive racism, can shape different perspectives of Blacks and Whites in ways that can undermine race relations. This research demonstrates that contemporary racism among Whites is subtle, often unintentional, and unconscious but that its effects are systematically damaging to race relations by fostering miscommunication and distrust. In particular, the authors examine the effects of aversive racism on outcomes for Blacks (e.g., in selection decisions), on the ways that Whites behave in interracial interactions, in the impressions that Whites and Blacks form of each other in these interactions, and on the task efficiency of interracial dyads. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2004 APA, all rights reserved)

Dovidio, John F. and Samuel L. Gaertner. "Aversive Racism and Selection Decisions: 1989 and 1999." Psychological Science 11 (2000): 315-19.
Available online
Notes: Documents, over a ten year period, a reduction - but not a disappearance -- of whites' self-reported racial prejudice and bias in selections decisions involving black and white candidates.
Abstract: This "study investigated differences over a 10-year period in whites' self-reported racial prejudice and their bias in selection decisions involving black and white candidates for employment. We examined the hypothesis, derived from the aversive-racism framework, that although overt expressions of prejudice may decline significantly across time, subtle manifestations of bias may persist. Consistent with this hypothesis, sef-reported prejudice was lower in 1998-1999 than it was in 1988-1989, and at both time periods, white participants did not discriminate against black relative to white candidates when the candidates' qualifications were clearly strong or weak, but they did discriminate when the appropriate decision was more ambiguous. Theoretical and practical implications are considered."

Dovidio, John F., Kerry Kawakami, and Samuel L. Gaertner. "Implicit and Explicit Prejudice and Interracial Interaction." Journal of Personality & Social Psychology 82, no. 1 (2002): 62-68.
Available online
Notes: Studies how implicit racial attitudes influence interracial interactions.
Abstract: "The present research examined how implicit racial associations and explicit racial attitudes of Whites relate to behaviors and impressions in interracial interactions. Specifically, the authors examined how response latency and self-report measures predicted bias and perceptions of bias in verbal and nonverbal behavior exhibited by Whites while they interacted with a Black partner. As predicted, Whites' self-reported racial attitudes significantly predicted bias in their verbal behavior to Black relative to White confederates. Furthermore, these explicit attitudes predicted how much friendlier Whites felt that they behaved toward White than Black partners. In contrast, the response latency measure significantly predicted Whites' nonverbal friendliness and the extent to which the confederates and observers perceived bias in the participants' friendliness."

Dovidio, John F. et al. "On the Nature of Prejudice: Automatic and Controlled Processes." Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 33, no. 5 (1997): 510-540.
Available online
Abstract: Examined the existence of implicit attitudes of Whites toward Blacks, investigated the relationship between explicit measures of racial prejudice and implicit measures of racial attitudes, and explored the relationship of explicit and implicit attitudes to race-related responses and behavior. Exp 1, which used a priming technique, demonstrated implicit negative racial attitudes (i.e., evaluative associations) among 24 White undergraduates that were largely disassociated from explicit, self-reported racial prejudice. Exp 2 replicated the priming results of Exp 1 using 33 White undergraduates and demonstrated that explicit measures predicted deliberative race-related responses (juridic decisions), whereas implicit measures predicted spontaneous responses (racially primed word completions). Exp 3 extended these findings to interracial interactions using 33 White undergraduates. Self-reported (explicit) racial attitudes primarily predicted the relative evaluations of Black and White interaction partners, whereas the response latency measure of implicit attitude primarily predicted differences in nonverbal behaviors (blinking and visual contact). (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2004 APA, all rights reserved)

Dowdall, Jean. "Bad Behavior in a Search." The Chronicle of Higher Education 51, no. 32 (Apr. 2005): C3.
Available online
Notes: Search committee 'worst practices.'
Abstract: "Provides information on several problems committed by a search committee during administrative-job searches. Breach of the applicant's confidentiality; Inability to communicate with the candidate about the application status; Failure to disclose information about the job."

________. "Courting Elusive Candidates." The Chronicle of Higher Education 51, no. 23 (Feb. 2005): C2-3.
Available online
Abstract: "Offers advice on hiring committees for administrative positions in an institution. Determination of the potential strength of applicants; Establishment of relationships with candidates for the position; Consideration of particular needs of a candidate."

Duncan, Roberto A. "Strengthening Diversity Initiatives Using Cross-Cultural Communication Theory."Strategies for Promoting Pluralism in Education and the Workplace editors, Lynn Brodie Cleckley Betty Jane McClure Marilyn Welch. Westport, Conneticut: Praeger, 1984.
Notes: Diversity efforts require a firm definition of diversity and a theoretical foundation
Abstract: Argues that many diversity initiatives are weak and ineffective because they rely on varying definitions of diversity and lack a theoretical foundation. This chapter summarizes projected demographic changes in the labor force, reviews business responses to diversity, and proposes a model to develop diversity initiatives using Young Yun Kim's (1988) theory on cultural adaptation as an illustration for developing diversity initiatives.

Eagly, Alice H. and Steven J. Karau. "Role Congruity Theory of Prejudice Toward Female Leaders." Psychological Review 109, no. 3 (July 2002): 573-98.
Available online
Notes: Perceived incongruities between the female gender role and leadership roles leads to 2 forms of prejudice: (a) perceiving women less favorably than men as potential leaders and (b) evaluating behaviors associated with leadership less favorably when they are exhibited by women.
Abstract: A role congruity theory of prejudice toward female leaders proposes that perceived incongruities between the female gender role and leadership roles leads to 2 forms of prejudice: (a) perceiving women less favorably than men as potential occupants of leadership roles and (b) evaluating behavior that fulfills the prescriptions of a leader role less favorably when it is enacted by a woman. One consequence is that attitudes are less positive toward female than male leaders and potential leaders. Other consequences are that it is more difficult for women to become leaders and to achieve success in leadership roles. Evidence from varied research paradigms substantiates that these consequences occur, especially in situations that heighten perceptions of incongruity between the female gender role and leadership roles.

Ely, Robin J. "The Power in Demography: Women's Social Constructions of Gender Identity at Work." Academy of Management Journal 38, no. 3 (1995): 589-634.
Available online
Notes: Study compared law firms with low and relatively higher proportions of senior women. Found that sex roles stereotyping was more problematic when few women were in senior positions.
Abstract: This study examined how women's proportional representation in the upper echelons of organizations affects professional women's social constructions of gender difference and gender identity at work. Qualitative and quantitative data were used. Results suggest that sex roles are more stereotypical and more problematic in firms with relatively low proportions of senior women. This research also found that women responded to these constraints in a range of ways and identifies five response profiles.

Fazio, Russell H. et al. "On the Automatic Activation of Attitudes." Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 50, no. 2 (1986): 229-38.
Available online
Notes: Experiments using priming to establish a strong association between an object and an evaluation of that object show that attitudes about the object can be automatically activated simply by presenting the object at a later date.
Abstract: We hypothesized that attitudes characterized by a strong association between the attitude object and an evaluation of that object are capable of being activated from memory automatically upon mere presentation of the attitude object. We used a priming procedure to examine the extent to which the mere presentation of an attitude object would facilitate the latency with which subjects could indicate whether a subsequently presented target adjective had a positive or a negative connotation. Across three experiments, facilitation was observed on trials involving evaluatively congruent primes (attitude objects) and targets, provided that the attitude object possessed a strong evaluative association. In Experiments 1 and 2, preexperimentally strong and weak associations were identified via a measurement procedure. In Experiment 3, the strength of the object-evaluation association was manipulated. The results indicated that attitudes can be automatically activated and that the strength of the object-evaluation association determines the likelihood of such automatic activation. The implications of these findings for a variety of issues regarding attitudes - including their functional value, stability, effects on later behavior, and measurement - are discussed.

Ferber, Marianne A. and Carole A. Green. "Traditional or Reverse Sex Discrimination? A Case Study of a Large Public University." Industrial and Labor Relations Review 35, no. 4 (July 1982): 550-564.
Available online
Notes: Article finds evidence that there is no effective affirmative action in female faculty employment.
Abstract: "This study assesses the extent and causes of recent sex discrimination in academic positions at a large public university. Performing multiple regression analysis on data for all individuals hired for full-time faculty positions during the academic years 1975-76 through 1978-79 at the University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, the authors find that women are paid less ($2,200 less, on average) than men when such usual criteria as highest degree, experience, number of publications, honors, and field are held constant. They find no evidence that this gap closes over time. Using multiple probit analysis, the authors find, in addition, that women are less likely to be hired in tenure-track positions. Then, using discriminant analysis as an alternate method, they find that articles published is the largest contributing factor to high academic rank, but that sex is also a significant factor. The authors conclude that, despite suspicions to the contrary, their evidence shows no effective affirmative action in faculty employment."

Fidell, L. S. "Empirical Verification of Sex Discrimination in Hiring Practices in Psychology."Woman: Dependent or Independent Variable? editors, R. K Denmark F. L. Unger, 774-82. New York: Psychological Dimensions, 1975.
Notes: Shows influence of gender on evaluation of credentials. Based on a study that switched names on C.V.s.
Abstract:

Fiorentine, Robert. "Sex Differences in Success Expectances and Causal Attributions: Is This Why Fewer Women Become Physicians?" Social Psychology Quarterly 51, no. 3 (1988): 236-49.
Available online
Notes: Women drop out of "male" subject areas when they perform poorly; men who perform equally poorly do not drop out.
Abstract: "Toward the larger goal of understanding why women are underrepresented among physicians, this investigation assesses the contribution of the cognitive approach in explaining the lower rate of female persistence in undergraduate premed programs. In examining high school students about to embark on a premed course, the author found that females do not attribute their high school performance to a different configuration of ability, effort, or task difficulty. Females are slightly more likely than males to attribute their high school grades to luck, but this tendency seems to have no effect on the expectancy of success in the premed program. Nor are there significant sex differences in the use of attributions to ability, effort, task difficulty, or luck among male and female premed students, even though females earn lower grades in the required premed courses. The slight differences that do exist suggest that female premed students are more likely to internalize their successes and to externalize their failures, an attributional pattern that should result in higher, not lower, levels of persistence. A logistic regression analysis, however, indicates that none of the causal attributions have any effect on persistence for either males or females. Yet female premed students rate themselves lower on a variety of academic and social skills and have less confidence in their ability to perform the role of physician. This lower level of confidence explains some of the premed persistence gap. The implications of these findings are discussed."

Foschi, Martha. "Double Standards in the Evaluation of Men and Women." Social Psychology Quarterly 59, no. 3 (1996): 237-54.
Available online
Notes: Women held to a stricter standard of competeny in men. Difference is reduced when evaluator held to higher standards of accountability
Abstract: This article reviews theory and research on double standards. The article focusses on double standards for competence in task groups and begins by examining how status characteristics (e.g. gender, ethnicity, socioeconimic class) become a basis for stricter standards for the lower status person. This article presents the results from two expectations-states studies on gender and double standards for task completion. In these studies men and women in opposite sex-dyads worked first individually and then as a team to solve a perceptual task. Though both sexes achieved equal levels of performance, women were held to a stricter standard of competence than men. This difference was more marked when the level of accountability on the part of the assessor was low and less marked when accountability was high.

Foschi, Martha, Larissa Lai, and Kirsten Sigerson. "Gender and Double Standards in the Assessment of Job Applicants." Social Psychology Quarterly 57, no. 4 (Dec. 1994): 326-39.
Available online
Notes: Examines gender-based double standards for applicants for an engineering job
Abstract: This study tests hypotheses on the use of gender-based double standards in the assessment of task competence. The design involves the examination of files of applicants for engineering jobs, and recreates several features of a hiring decision. The critical choice to be made by each subject was between a male and a female applicant with average but slightly different academic records. In one experimental condition the man held the better record; in the other, the situation was reversed. Results for male subjects show that when the male candidate was the better performer, he was chosen more often, and was considered more competent and more suitable, than when the female candidate was in that position. Female subjects, on the other hand, did not show any differences regarding sex of applicant. This sex of subject effect is examined in detail. A discussion of the paper's theoretical and methodological contributions to the study of ability evaluation is also included.

Foster, Sharon W. et al. "Results of a Gender-Climate and Work-Environment Survey at a Midwestern Academic Health Center." Academic Medicine 75, no. 6 (June 2000): 653-60.
Notes: Women faculty at UW Medical school perceive that gender climate impedes their advancement.
Abstract: Presents results of a 115 item questionnaire distributed to all UW Medical School faculty to assess their perceptions of mentoring, networking, professional environment, obstacles to a successful academic career, and reasons for considering leaving academic medicine. Based on a response rate of 61%, the authors conclude that women faculty perceived that gender climate created specific, serious obstacles to their professional development. The authors further conclude that many of these obstacles are remediable and that medical school can improve the climate and retain and promote women by more inclusive networking, attention to meeting times and child care, and improved professional interactions between men and women faculty.

Fox, Mary Frank. "Gender, Faculty, and Doctoral Education in Science and Engineering."Equal Rites, Unequal Outcomes: Women in American Research Universities editor, Lilli S. Hornig. New York: Kluwer Academic, 2003.
Notes: Women faculty play an important role in fostering the education and success of women graduate students.
Abstract: Examines "the cultures and climates of graduate science departments [and how they influence] women's participation and position in these fields." The chapter investigates whether men and women faculty in science and engineering "have comparatively different or similar patterns in (1) the gender composition of advisees and research team (student) members; (2) the nature/character of their interactions with advisees; and (3) their beliefs about what is important in doctoral education for female compared to male students. Fox is interested primarily in determining "the consequences of having women faculty" and in how and why it matters "to have women as well as men faculty." Her essay is based on results of a national mail survey she conducted in 1993-94 of 1215 faculty (sampled from known populations) in doctoral-granting departments of computer science, chemistry, electrical engineering, microbiology, and physics. Fox finds that women faculty "act as primary research advisors for a larger number of female students;" that for faculty doing "team research" "women faculty have more female students on their research teams" than do men faculty and the same amount of male students as do men faculty -- thus they have larger groups; that women faculty interact with their students in a more planned or "deliberate" manner, that women faculty put "more emphasis upon giving help to advisees across a broader range of areas of help and for their female students, "they place greater emphasis on a range of skills/competencies, not only publication of papers, but also a span of interactional capacities" such as, participating in laboratory meetings, making presentations, interacting with faculty. Women faculty, Fox argues, seem to "believe that success of female students . . . is governed not only by 'ambition' and 'hard work' but also by factors more external to students, such as 'alignment with successful faculty." They recognize "the role of social and organizational opportunities/constraints, as well as personal characteristics . . . " perhaps because of their own experiences. Her findings make an argument for the importance of women faculty members for the successful training of women graduate students.

Fuegen, Kathleen and Monica Biernat. "Reexamining the Effects of Solo Status for Women and Men." Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 28, no. 7 (2002): 913-25.
Available online
Notes: Evaluation of solo member in a group showed that bias based on solo status did not influence evaluation of solo women by members of their workgroup.
Abstract: This article explores the outcomes of solo status and the processes by which solos are evaluated within a group decision-making context. Six-person groups of varying gender composition were given a task to solve individually and as a group. Following group discussion, participants evaluated themselves and their groupmates on task-oriented and social-oriented skills. Unlike previous research, solo women were evaluated positively by their groupmates, and they suffered no performance decrements resulting from solo status. Furthermore, the evaluations solo women received accurately reflected their contributions to the group, although men's favorable evaluations in their groups were not similarly explained. Results are discussed in terms of a model in which social reality mediates the relationship between women's solo status and outcome, whereas perceiver stereotyping may contribute to favorable evaluations of men.

Fuegen, Kathleen et al. "Mothers and Fathers in the Workplace: How Gender and Parental Status Influence Judgments of Job-Related Competence." Journal of Social Issues 60, no. 4 (2004): 737-54.
Available online
Notes: Mothers held to stricter standards than women without children. Fathers held to more lenient standards than mothers and then men without children
Abstract: "We investigated the influence of gender and parental status on employment decisions. The shifting standards model predicts that parenthood polarizes judgments of women and men such that mothers are held to stricter employment standards than fathers. Social role theory predicts that parenting role, rather than gender, guides judgments of mothers and fathers. One hundred ninety-six undergraduates at two universities evaluated a job applicant; the applicant was either male or female and was either single or married with two children. Results showed that parents were judged less agentic and less committed to employment than non-parents. Parental status also interacted with gender, indicating that fathers were held to more lenient standards than mothers and childless men. We discuss theoretical and practical implications."

Gannon, Frank, Sara Quirk, and Sebastian Guest. "Searching for Discrimination." EMBO Reports 2, no. 8 (2001): 655-57.
Available online
Notes: Investigates whether women are treated fairly for the EMBO postdoctoral fellowship
Abstract: Stimulated by the Wenneras and Wold study of the Swedish Medical Research Council, this report investigates potential gender bias in the applicant review process of the European Molecular Biology Organization (EMBO) postdoctoral fellowship. Though women were less successful than men in winning fellowships, the authors report that the reasons for inequity are not clear. Their analysis illustrates that sucessful women applicants had a higher average number of publications than sucessful men applicants but that the impact value of sucessful mens' publications and number of first authorships was slightly higher than for women. They suggest that their findings are inconclusive but stress the need to examine and uncover potential gender bias in review processes.

Garcia-Retamero, Rocio and Esther Lopez-Zafra. "Prejudice Against Women in Male-Congenial Envionments: Perceptions of Gender Role Congruity in Leadership." Sex Roles 55, no. 1-2 (2006): 51-?
Available online
Notes: Female candidates discriminated against for leadership positions in male dominated field. Female and older evaluators showed more gender bias.
Abstract: "Some authors assert that there is a feminine advantage in leadership, even though female leaders are often targets of prejudice. Our experiment tested how people's expectations affect this prejudice in different work environments. Participants evaluated a male or a female candidate for a leadership position in an industry that was congruent or incongruent with the candidate's gender role. Participants showed prejudice against the female candidate, especially when she worked in an industry incongruent with her gender role. Female and older participants showed more prejudice against the female leader than did male and younger participants. These results invoke role congruity theory.

Geis, Florence L, Martha B Boston, and Nadine Hoffman. "Sex of Authority Role Models and Achievement by Men and Women: Leadership Performance and Recognition." Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 49, no. 3 (1985): 636-53.
Available online
Abstract: College students (N = 276) were exposed to all-male, all-female, or mixed-authority role models and then participated in a 4-person mixed-sex discussion. Vicarious cultural experience of authority models was represented by videotaped reenactments of TV commercials. Participants viewed either four traditional commercials showing a man as authority and woman as subordinate, or four reversed-role versions in which the male and female actors switched roles in the same scenarios. Personally observed authority models were represented by the experimenter, who supervised the discussion. Sex of authority in the commercials and sex of experimenter were crossed in a factorial design. In the all-male authority condition, men and women performed equally (as measured by talking time and number of substantive content suggestions), but recognized only the men as leaders in postdiscussion evaluation questionnaires. In the all-female authority condition, men and women also performed equally, and, in addition, they also received equal leadership recognition. In the two mixed-authority conditions, men objectively outperformed women. The data showed that recognition is not a direct function of performance for either sex, but is influenced by evaluators' expectations, which are at least partly defined by sex of authority role models in the social environment.

Geis, Florence L, Virginia Brown, and Carolyn Wolfe. "Legitimizing the Leader: Endorsement by Male Versus Female Authority Figures." Journal of Applied Social Psychology 20, no. 12 (1990): 943-70.
Abstract: Subjects viewed a videotaped group discussion by a leader and four other group members and evaluated each of them for leadership competence. The leader, either a man or a woman, was either personally endorsed ("legitimized") or unendorsed by either a male or a female authority figure. Legitimation raised both leaders' performance evaluations. Legitimation by the female authority affected the leaders' evaluations, overall, as much as legitimation by a male authority. For the male leaders, legitimation by the male and female authority fighures produced equal impact. However, legitimation by the female authority figure produced signifanctly greater impact on evaluations of the female leader's performance than the same legitimation by a male authority figure. The data suggest that female authority figures can be effective legitimizers of both sexes, but male authority's endorsements of a female subordinate may be viewed as suspect.

Ginther, Donna K. and Shulamit Kahn. "Women in Economics: Moving Up or Falling Off the Academic Career Ladder?" Journal of Economic Perspectives 18, no. 3 (2004): 193-214.
Available online
Notes: Gender gap in women economists' tenure promotion rates can not be fully accounted for by gender differences in productivity and or the effects of family responsibilites.
Abstract: This article considers whether the corresponding increases of women economists that one might expect as women move up the academic career ladder have occurred. The percentage of economics doctorates awarded to women increased from 8.7 percent in 1974 to 26.9 percent in 2000, according to data from the National Science Foundation Survey of Earned Doctorates. A number of studies based on data through the 1980s find that women economists are less likely to be promoted to tenure than men, and that these differences are not fully explained by observable characteristics. Other studies in Sweden and Great Britain find that women are underrepresented in tenured academic ranks in economics there. However, little is known about women economists' academic employment outcomes in the U.S. The study draws upon several empirical approaches and multiple data sets for the 1990s. It was found that when compared with other academic disciplines, women in economics are less likely to get tenure and take longer to achieve it. Although gender differences in productivity and the effect of children on promotion partly explain women's lesser chances of receiving tenure in economics, a significant portion of the gender promotion gap remains unexplained by observable characteristics. [EBSCO]

Glick, Peter and Susan T. Fiske. "An Ambivalent Alliance: Hostile and Benevolent Sexism As Complementary Justifications for Gender Inequality." American Psychologist 56, no. 2 (2001): 109-18.